Introduction to Integrated Science I

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UNIT ONE

HISTORY OF SCIENCE

What is science?

The word “science” comes from the Latin word “Scientia” [sye en’ tee uh], which means “to have knowledge.”

 

Definition of science

Science has no generally accepted definition because of its complex nature. Scientists, philosophers of science and science educators define the discipline from their various perspectives. Hornby & Wehmeier (2000:1051), for example, define science as “knowledge about the structure and behaviour of the natural and physical world, based on facts that you can prove, for example by experiments.” It is also “a system for organizing the knowledge about a particular subject, especially one concerned with aspect of human behaviour or society” (Hornby & Wehmeier, 2000:1052). Woodburn and Obourn (1965) defined it as that human endeavour that seeks to describe with ever-increasing accuracy the events and circumstances that occur or exist within our natural environment. In the opinion of Ogunniyi (1984), science is an attempt by human beings to organise their experiences about nature into meaningful systems of explanations.

 

Science is, therefore, an endeavor dedicated to the accumulation and classification of observable facts in order to formulate general laws about the natural world. This definition means that the purpose of science is to develop general laws that explain how the world around us works and why things happen the way they do.

How is this feat accomplished? That’s where the “accumulation and classification of observable facts” comes in. The practice of science involves experimentation and observation. Scientists observe the world around them and collect facts. They also design experiments that alter the circumstances they are observing, which in turn leads to the collection of more facts. These facts might eventually allow scientists to learn enough about the world around them so they can develop ideas that help us understand how the natural world works.

 

There are also the ethical and attitudinal aspects of science which require scientists to be honest, accurate, objective and open-minded in conducting their experiments and reporting their findings so that they do not mislead both the scientific community and humanity at large. This perhaps explains why Abdullahi, quoted in Okoli (2003:5), defined science as “activities accumulating into a testable, verifiable and falsifiable body of knowledge.” Science is, therefore, not only seen as a method or process, a body of accumulated facts, a product of scientific inquiry but also involves ethics, attitudes, concepts, theories, laws and principles (Aghadiuno, 1985; Okoli, 2003). Human nature makes scientific facts tentative and not absolute.

 

Evolution of Science

One way to truly understand where we are in science today is to look at what happened in the past. The history of science can teach us many lessons about how science should and should not be practiced. It can also help us understand the direction in which science is heading today.

Without a historical perspective, however, you will not fully appreciate what science is.

Archaeological and anthropological evidence suggest that humans have lived through several periods in the past. The prehistoric period is the time between the use of the first stone tools by humans and the invention of writing.

The era in history where humans used primitive stone tools is termed the Stone Age. The Stone Age began about 2.6 million years ago and lasted until about 3,300 B.C. when the Bronze Age began. It is broken into three distinct periods: the Paleolithic, the Mesolithic and the Neolithic Periods.

The Paleolithic Period was also known as the Old Stone Age. During this period, humans engaged in hunting and gathering and lead a nomadic life. The Mesolithic Age, also known as the Middle Stone Age, was the second part of the Stone Age. This age is characterized by the appearance of Microliths (small bladed stone tools). The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. Later on in the period, they began to domesticate animals. The Neolithic Period is sometimes called the New Stone Age. Humans during this age used stone tools like their earlier Stone Age ancestors but in addition they cultivated plants, bred animals and formed permanent settlements. This period marks the advent of agriculture.

Metallurgy was one thing that our earliest forefathers were engaged in. The early metallurgists developed the chemical process involved the extraction of iron without understanding any of the science involved. Nevertheless, they were still able to optimise the extraction by trial and error. The extraction of iron led to the Iron Age, an era characterized by the use of crude tools and implements made of iron for hunting, farming and defense against attacks. Iron weapons began in the Middle East and in southeastern Europe around 1200 BCE. They did not show up in China until around 600 BCE. During the Iron Age, people across much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began making tools from iron and steel. The advent of the Iron Age collapse several prominent Bronze Age civilizations, including civilizations in Ancient Greece and Turkey. Cities like Troy and Gaza were destroyed.

Before this, copper and tin were extracted (which led to the Bronze Age). Exactly how each of these processes was discovered is lost in the mists of time, but it is likely that they were developed using observation and experiment in a similar way to that used by today's scientists. The Bronze Age marked the first time humans started to work with metals. Bronze tools and weapons replaced the earlier stone versions. Humans made many technological advances during the Bronze Age. This includes the first writing system and the invention of the wheel. The Bronze Age lasted from roughly 3300 to 1200 B.C.

Humans have always been inquisitive, needing to understand why things behave in a certain way, and trying to link observation with prediction. For example, since prehistoric times humans have observed the heavens and tried to make sense of the seasonal changes in the position of the sun, moon and stars.

Historical records of astronomical measurements date back as far as Mesopotamia nearly 5000 years ago, with later observations made by the ancient Chinese, Babylonians, and Greeks. The Mesopotamians tried to explain their observations by suggesting that the Earth was at the centre of the Universe, and that the other heavenly bodies moved around it. Humans seek to explain their world with (internal) models; one of the earliest is that the affairs of humans and the world are controlled by the positions of the stars and planets. Although astrology is now regarded as a psuedoscience, it was the original motivation for the mapping of the stars and the assignment of constellations.

Early humankind also observed that certain plants could be used to treat sickness and disease, and herbal medicines were developed, some of which are still used by modern pharmaceutical companies to provide leads for new synthetic drugs.

Some of the earliest records from history indicate that 3,000 years before Christ, the ancient

Egyptians already had reasonably sophisticated medical practices. Sometime around 2650 B.C., for example, a man named Imhotep (eem’ oh tep) was renowned for his knowledge of medicine. People traveled from all over the Middle East to visit Imhotep, hoping he would cure their illnesses. Most historians agree that the heart of Egyptian medicine was trial and error. Egyptian doctors would try one remedy, and if it worked, they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried didn’t work, the patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that next time they should try a different remedy. Egyptian doctors learned that if you covered an open wound with moldy

bread, the wound would heal quickly and cleanly. As a result, most Egyptian doctors applied moldy bread to their patients’ wounds. Modern science tells us that certain bread molds produce penicillin, a chemical that kills germs that infect wounds! Thus, even though the Egyptian doctors knew nothing about germs, they were able to treat wounds in a way that helped avoid infections.

The Greeks were the first people to try and develop the theory behind their observations: people such as Pythagoras, who concentrated on a mathematical view of the world. Similarly, Aristotle and Plato developed logical methods for examining the world around them. It was the Greeks who first suggested that matter was made up of atoms - fundamental particles that could not be broken down further.

But it wasn't only the Greeks who moved science on. Science was also being developed in India, China, the Middle East and South America. Despite having their own cultural view of the world, they each independently developed materials such as gunpowder, soap and paper.

Based on the explanation that science consists of a collection of facts and observations and then using these observations to explain the natural world, the ancient Greeks were considered as the first true scientists by historians. Although many civilizations like the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Chinese had collected observations and facts, they had not tried to use those facts to develop explanations of the world around them. Thales, Anaximander (an axe’ uh man der), and Anaximenes (an axe’ uhme’ neez) are three ancient Greeks regarded as humanity’s first real scientists who live around the 6th century B.C.

 

Thales studied the heavens and tried to develop a unifying theme that would explain the movement of the heavenly bodies (the planets and stars). He used his ideas to predict certain planetary events. For example, he gained a great reputation throughout the known world when he correctly predicted a solar eclipse (short-term disappearance of the sun) in his days.

Anaximander was probably a pupil of Thales. He was much more interested in the study of life. He was the first scientist who tried to explain the origin of the human race without reference to a creator. He believed that all life began in the sea, and at one time, humans were actually some sort of fish. This idea was later resurrected by other scientists, most notably Charles Darwin, and is today called evolution.

Anaximenes was probably an associate of Anaximander. He believed that air was the most basic substance in nature. In fact, he believed all things were constructed of air. When air is thinned out, he thought, it grows warm and becomes fire. When air is thickened, he thought, it condenses into liquid and solid matter. Today we know these ideas are wrong. Nevertheless, his attempts to explain all things in nature as being made of a single substance led to one of the most important scientific ideas introduced by the Greeks: the concept of atoms.

Leucippus (loo sip’ us) was a Greek scientist who lived perhaps 100 to 150 years after Anaximenes. Although little is known about him, historians believe that he built on the concepts of Anaximenes and proposed that all matter is composed of little units called “atoms.” As a result, Leucippus is known as the father of atomic theory.

Aristotle, (384-322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. He is often called the father of the life sciences. Aristotle lived shortly after Anaximenes.  He wrote volumes of works on many things, including philosophy, mathematics, logic, and physics. His greatest work, however, was in the study of living things. He was the first to make a large-scale attempt at the classification of animals and plants.

Greek scientists had catalogued many plants and animals, but there were so many that keeping track of them was proving to be very difficult. Aristotle came up with a classification scheme that allowed him to group the known plants and animals into an easy-to-reference system. Because Aristotle was financially supported by Alexander the Great, he was able to obtain plant and animal samples from all over the known world, adding those to his classification scheme.

Archimedes (287 – 212 BC) was a Greek Mathematician, Physicist, Engineer, inventor and an Astronomer. He lived roughly 100 years after Aristotle. Archimedes used much of what he discovered in math to advance science. He applied mathematical formulas to explain why certain things happened the way they did. Archimedes was really one of the first scientists to demonstrate how closely mathematics and science are linked.

Archimedes is probably best known for his work with fluids. He was the first to show how you could predict whether or not an object would float in a liquid. His work with liquids led to one of the more entertaining stories in the history of science. The king that Archimedes served, King Hiero, once asked Archimedes to analyze a crown that was made for him. The crown was supposed to be made of gold, but the king was skeptical. Archimedes knew how to determine whether or not the crown was made of gold, but the process required him to know the exact amount of space the crown occupied.

This seemed impossible, as the crown was so irregularly shaped that Archimedes could not find a way to measure it accurately. Well, one day while taking a bath, Archimedes realized that when an item is immersed in water, it displaces the same amount of water as the space that the item occupies in the water. Thus, all Archimedes had to do was to immerse the crown in water and determine how much water it displaced.

That would tell him how much space the crown occupied. Archimedes was so excited by this discovery that he ran through the streets screaming “Eureka,” which means “I have found it.”

However, it wasn't until the 13th century that much of this scientific work was brought together in European universities, and that it started to look more like science as we know it today.

Progress was relatively slow at first. For example, it took until the 16th century for Copernicus to revolutionise the way that we look at the Universe, and for Harvey to put forward his ideas on how blood circulated round the human body. This slow progress was sometimes the result of religious dogma, but it was also a product of troubled times!

The Dark Ages

The term Dark Ages is used to describe the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Italian Renaissance and the Age of Exploration. Roughly speaking, the Dark Ages corresponds to the Middle Ages, or from 500 to 1500 AD. The Early Middle Ages, from about 500 to 1000 AD, is regarded as the true Dark Ages.

The term “dark” simply denotes the fact that little was known about this period. Although real science stalled dramatically in the Western World, there were still a lot of people making observations and inventing things. The English during this time created a fine book about using astronomical observations to calculate the start of Easter. Both Arabs and Chinese during this time period were involved in making careful studies of the heavens. They made observations that were much more detailed and precise than those of the Greek scientists who came before them. Even though there were very few attempts to explain what those data meant, at least the data were being collected, and they were used by later scientists to draw significant conclusions about the world around us. For example, Chinese records from 1054 A.D. include detailed observations of a phenomenon that Chinese scientists called a “guest star” in the heavens. The scientists were familiar with the stars and knew some formed patterns called constellations. They recorded in 1054 that a star that had not been seen before suddenly appeared in a certain constellation. Although they did not understand how this “guest star” came to be, they recorded their observations in great detail. Modern scientists have been able to use those observations to determine that the Chinese had seen a supernova, which is essentially the explosion of a star. The observations were so detailed that modern scientists were able to look at that same part of the night sky, and when they did, they found a cloud of dust and gas, called a nebula. Based on these facts, modern scientists now believe that one way a nebula forms is by the explosion of a star.

 

Modern Science

The series of events that led to the birth of modern science is called the Scientific Revolution. Europeans developed a new way of gaining knowledge, leading to this era in the evolution of science and it changed the way people thought about the world. The scientific revolution had broad effects on society, changing ideas about the physical world, human behavior and religion. It occurred in Europe between 1540 and 1700. People began to study the world around them and used logic to explain what they saw.

Scientific knowledge is based on observations, facts, and logical ideas or theories about them. Scientists design experiments to test whether their theories are correct or not but this method of gaining knowledge was uncommon before the Scientific Revolution. A lot of prominent scientists were engaged in the practice of science during this period but we will talk about but a few.

Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and author who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific revolution. Isaac Newton was born in the manor house of Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. Although by the calendar in use at the time of his birth he was born on Christmas Day 1642, the date of 4 January 1643 is usually stated as his birthday. He died on March 20 (March 31), 1727 in London.  This is the "corrected" Gregorian calendar date bringing it into line with our present calendar. Isaac Newton came from a family of farmers but never knew his father, also named Isaac Newton, who died in October 1642, three months before his son was born. Although Isaac's father owned property and animals which made him quite a wealthy man, he was completely uneducated and could not sign his own name.

Newton went to grammar school in Grantham, where he studied, to prepare himself for the university. He entered the Trinity College Cambridge, on 5 June 1661 somewhat older than the other undergraduates because he had had some interruptions in his education.

When Newton arrived in Cambridge in 1661, the movement now known as the scientific revolution was well advanced, and many of the works basic to modern science had appeared. Astronomers from Copernicus to Kepler had elaborated the heliocentric system of the universe. Galileo had proposed the foundations of a new mechanics built on the principle of inertia. Led by Descartes, philosophers had begun to formulate a new conception of nature as an intricate, impersonal, and inert machine. Yet as far as the universities of Europe, including Cambridge, were concerned, all this might well have never happened. They continued to be the strongholds of outmoded Aristotelianism, which rested on a geocentric view of the universe and dealt with nature in qualitative rather than quantitative terms.

 

Newton's aim at Cambridge was a law degree. Instruction at Cambridge was dominated by the philosophy of Aristotle but some freedom of study was allowed in the third year of the course. Newton studied the philosophy of Descartes, Gassendi, Hobbes, and in particular Boyle. The mechanics of the Copernican astronomy of Galileo attracted him and he also studied Kepler’s Optics.

Newton's interest in mathematics began in the autumn of 1663 when he bought an astrology book at a fair in Cambridge and found that he could not understand the mathematics in it. Attempting to read a trigonometry book, he found that he lacked knowledge of geometry and so decided to read Barrow's edition of Euclid's Elements. He again started with Descartes and branched out into the other literature of modern analysis with its application of algebraic techniques to problems of geometry. He mastered geometry and pursuing his own line of analysis, he began to move into new territories. He discovered the binomial theorem, and he developed the calculus, a more powerful form of analysis that employs infinitesimal considerations in finding the slopes of curves and areas under curves.

Despite some evidence that his progress had not been particularly good, Newton was elected a scholar on 28 April 1664 and received his bachelor's degree in April 1665. It would appear that his scientific genius had still not emerged, but it did so suddenly when the plague closed the University in the summer of 1665 and he had to return to Lincolnshire. There, in a period of less than two years, while Newton was still under 25 years old, he began revolutionary advances in mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy.

While Newton remained at home he laid the foundations for differential and integral calculus, several years before its independent discovery by Leibniz. The 'method of fluxions', as he termed it, was based on his crucial insight that the integration of a function is merely the inverse procedure to differentiating it. Taking differentiation as the basic operation, Newton produced simple analytical methods that unified many separate techniques previously developed to solve apparently unrelated problems such as finding areas, tangents, the lengths of curves and the maxima and minima of functions. Newton's De Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum was written in 1671 but Newton failed to get it published and it did not appear in print until John Colson produced an English translation in 1736.

When the University of Cambridge reopened after the plague in 1667, Newton put himself forward as a candidate for a fellowship. In October he was elected to a minor fellowship at Trinity College but, after being awarded his Master's Degree, he was elected to a major fellowship in July 1668 which allowed him to dine at the Fellows' Table. In July 1669 Barrow tried to ensure that Newton's mathematical achievements became known to the world.

In 1672 Newton published his first scientific paper on light and colour in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

Newton's greatest achievement was his work in physics and celestial mechanics, which culminated in the theory of universal gravitation. By 1666 Newton had early versions of his three laws of motion. He had also discovered the law giving the centrifugal force on a body moving uniformly in a circular path. However he did not have a correct understanding of the mechanics of circular motion.

Halley persuaded Newton to write a full treatment of his new physics and its application to astronomy. Over a year later (1687) Newton published the Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica or Principia as it is always known.

The Principia is recognised as the greatest scientific book ever written. Newton analysed the motion of bodies in resisting and non-resisting media under the action of centripetal forces. The results were applied to orbiting bodies, projectiles, pendulums, and free-fall near the Earth. He further demonstrated that the planets were attracted toward the Sun by a force varying as the inverse square of the distance and generalised that all heavenly bodies mutually attract one another.

In 1703 he was elected president of the Royal Society and was re-elected each year until his death. He was knighted in 1705 by Queen Anne, the first scientist to be so honoured for his work.

Marie Curie: 1867-1934

Marie Curie was a physicist, chemist and a pioneer in the study of radiation. She and her husband, Pierre, discovered the elements polonium and radium. They and Henri Becquerel were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, and Marie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. She worked extensively with radium throughout her lifetime, characterizing its various properties and investigating its therapeutic potential. However, her work with radioactive materials was what ultimately killed her. She died of a blood disease in 1934.

 

Marie Curie was born Marya Salomee Sklodowska on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She was the youngest of five children; three older sisters and a brother. Her parents were educators who ensured that all their children were educated.

When Marya completed her secondary education, she wished to continue, but the University of Warsaw did not accept female students. At age 24, Marya travelled to Paris to continue her studies. She registered at the Sorbonne University in Paris where she signed her name as "Marie" to seem more French. She was a focused and diligent student, and was at the top of her class. In recognition of her abilities, she was awarded the Alexandrovitch Scholarship for Polish students studying abroad. The scholarship helped Marie pay for her tuition needed to complete her licianteships, or degrees, in physics and mathematical sciences in 1894.

She met and got married to Pierre Curie, professor of the School of Physics in 1895. The Curies worked together investigating radioactivity, building on the work of the German physicist Roentgen and the French physicist Becquerel. In July 1898, the Curies announced the discovery of a new chemical element, polonium. At the end of the year, they announced the discovery of another, radium. The Curies, along with Becquerel, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903.

Pierre's life was cut short in 1906 when he was knocked down and killed by a carriage. Marie took over his teaching post, becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne, and devoted herself to continuing the work that they had begun together. She received a second Nobel Prize, for Chemistry, in 1911.

The Curie's research was crucial in the development of x-rays in surgery. During World War One Curie helped to equip ambulances with x-ray equipment, which she herself drove to the front lines. The International Red Cross made her head of its radiological service and she held training courses for medical orderlies and doctors in the new techniques.

Despite her success, Marie continued to face great opposition from male scientists in France, and she never received significant financial benefits from her work. But by the late 1920, she was experiencing health problems, likely because of her exposure to radioactive materials. On July 4, 1934, Curie died of aplastic anemia – a condition that occurs when bone marrow fails to produce new blood cells. "The bone marrow could not react probably because it had been injured by a long accumulation of radiation," her doctor wrote.

Curie was buried next to her husband in Sceaux, a community in southern Paris. But in 1995, their remains were moved and interred in the Pantheon in Paris alongside France's greatest citizens. The Curies received another honor in 1944 when the 96th element on the periodic table of elements was discovered and named "curium."

The Curies' eldest daughter Irene was herself a scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking was a British scientist, professor and author who performed groundbreaking work in physics and cosmology, and whose books helped to make science accessible to everyone. 

Hawking was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxford, England. His birthday was also the 300th anniversary of the death of Galileo – long a source of pride for the noted physicist. The eldest of Frank and Isobel Hawking's four children, Hawking was born into a family of thinkers. His Scottish mother earned her way into Oxford University in the 1930s – a time when few women were able to go to college. His father, another Oxford graduate, was a respected medical researcher with a specialty in tropical diseases.

Hawking's father wanted his eldest child to go into medicine, but at an early age, Hawking showed a passion for science and the sky. That was evident to his mother, who, along with her children, often stretched out in the backyard on summer evenings to stare up at the stars. "Stephen always had a strong sense of wonder," she remembered. "And I could see that the stars would draw him."

Hawking entered University College at the University of Oxford at the age of 17. Although he expressed a desire to study mathematics, Oxford didn't offer a degree in that specialty, so Hawking gravitated toward physics and, more specifically, cosmology. In 1962, he graduated with honors in natural science and went on to attend Trinity Hall at the University of Cambridge for a Ph.D. in cosmology.

In 1968, Hawking became a member of the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge. The next few years were a fruitful time for Hawking and his research. In 1973, he published his first, highly-technical book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, with G.F.R. Ellis. Over the years, Hawking wrote or co-wrote a total of 15 books.

In 1979, Hawking found himself back at the University of Cambridge, where he was named to one of teaching's most renowned posts, dating back to 1663: the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.

Research on the Universe and Black Holes

In 1974, Hawking's research turned him into a celebrity within the scientific world when he showed that black holes aren't the information vacuums that scientists had thought they were. 

In simple terms, Hawking demonstrated that matter, in the form of radiation, can escape the gravitational force of a collapsed star.  

When Hawking’s radiation theory was born, the announcement sent shock waves of excitement through the scientific world. Hawking was named a fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 32, and later earned the prestigious Albert Einstein Award, among other honors. He also earned teaching stints at Caltech in Pasadena, California, where he served as visiting professor and at Gonville and Caius College in Cambridge. 

At age 21, while studying cosmology at the University of Cambridge, he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a degenerative motor neuron disease that quickly robs people of the ability to voluntarily move their muscles. He was told he had two years to live.

Although Hawking’s body may have weakened, his intellect stayed sharp. Two years into his PhD, he was having trouble walking and talking, the disease progressed more slowly than the doctors had initially feared. On March 14, 2018, Hawking finally died of ALS, the disease that was supposed to have killed him more than 50 years earlier.

PROFESSOR FRANCIS ALLOTEY

 

 

Professor Francis Kofi Ampenyin Allotey, is a Professor of Mathematics, Scholar, Nuclear Physicist and a Consultant in Informatics for Development.

 

Prof Allotey was born in August 9, 1932 to a humble parentage at Saltpond in the Central Region of Ghana. He had his elementary education at the St. John the Baptist Catholic School, Salt Pond and received his secondary education at the Ghana National College among the 1952 pioneer group.

He pursued further studies at the University Tutorial College in Ghana, London Borough Polytechnic (South Bank University) and London Imperial College of Science and Technology where he obtained the then coveted Diploma of Imperial College (London) in 1960.

 

He returned in the same year to take up a lectureship position in the Department of Mathematics at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). He went for study leave at Princeton University where he obtained his Master’s and Doctorate degrees and returned in 1966 to take up the appointment of the head of the Mathematics Department. He was the first Ghanaian to become a fully-fledged mathematics professor in 1974.

 

He was the founder and First Director of the KNUST Computer Centre. Prof Allotey was the first to introduce computer education into Ghana. The Faculty Board between 1971 and 1980 elected him four times as the Dean of the Faculty of Science. During this same period, he was elected five times as a Representative of the Academic Staff. He was ultimately appointed as the Pro-Vice Chancellor of the University in 1978.

He became a world authority and an instant fame with his work on Soft X-Ray Spectroscopy which established the principle widely known as the “Allotey Formalism” – the technique used to determine matter in outer space – for which he received the Prince Philip Gold Medal Award in 1973.

Prof Allotey was a member of many International Scientific Organizations and held numerous leadership positions both the national and international levels. He also received many awards.

 

He has been a phenomenal inspirer and influence in the study of Physics and Mathematics in Ghanaian Schools, Colleges and Universities and he has become a living legend. He played no mean part in the establishment of the Laser Research Unit in the Physics Department of the University of Cape Coast, projected to be a Centre of excellence to serve the whole of the West Africa Sub-Region.

Prof Allotey died of natural cause on 2^nd November, 2017 and was accorded a state burial in recognition of his contribution to the advancement of science and technology in Ghana.

 

PROFESSOR MIRIAN EWURAMA ADDY

 

 

Professor Mirian Ewurama Addy contributed immensely to science education by making the subject interesting to Ghanaians of all ages with her role as the Quiz Mistress of the national weekly science and maths quiz programme. As a resource person for science education programmes in Ghana, Prof Addy became very popular as the host of the “Brilliant Science and Maths Quiz.”

It is believed that her quiz mistress role inspired many female students to study science.

 

Ewurama Addy was born on the 7^th February, 1942 in Nkawkaw in the Eastern Region, to Samuel Joseph Cole and Angelina Kwofie Cole. 

Ewurama attended St Monica’s Senior Secondary School and Achimota School for her secondary education from January 1956 to June 1960 where she obtained her ‘O’ and ‘A’ level certificates. Marian had an exceptional ‘IQ’ and effectively combined academics and sporting activities without a hitch.

She represented the school at inter-collegiate sports in the late fifties. She scored the highest marks and also maintained the topmost position throughout her secondary school years. It was, therefore, not surprising when she obtained distinction in all subjects at the ‘O’ and ‘A’ Level examinations.

Professor Addy was educated at the University of Ghana, where she studied towards a degree in Botany, and at the Pennsylvania State University, where she obtained Masters and Doctorate degrees in biochemistry.

Professor Marian Ewurama Addy was the first woman professor to come out of the University of Ghana in the natural sciences.

 

Professor Addy’s interest and extension activities were in bridging the gap between scientific and indigenous knowledge and in the popularisation of science. She was often called upon to be a Resource Person and/or Role Model for programmes in female science education.

She passed on at the early hours of 14 January 2014 after a short illness at the age of 72 years.

 

FIELDS OR BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

Science has two broad fields of study. These are:

· Natural science

· Social science

Natural science deals with the study of nature and is sub-divided in to Pure and Applied science. Pure Science concerns primarily with the generation of Knowledge. Examples of pure science are Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Geology, and Astronomy. Applied science uses the knowledge generated by Pure Science in solving human problems. Examples of Applied Science are Agriculture, Medicine, Engineering, etc.

Social Science, however, deals with problems of the society. Examples of social science are Sociology, Psychology, Economics, History, etc.

The natural scientist and social scientist both have a common characteristic, i.e. they all employ the scientific method to acquire knowledge so as to achieve their objective. However, findings or results differ. The products/findings of the natural scientists are reproducible and remain unchanged under similar conditions or prevailing factors. Thus findings in this case are universally accepted and can be generalized. On the other hand, results of social science are localized within a particular society and cannot be same in another society with different culture, political ideology, taste, etc.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OR PROCESS

Scientists always try to find solutions to problems they encounter. They try as much as possible to understand how and why things happen or how they could improve upon natural occurring phenomenon. To obtain answers to these, involves the scientific methods of investigation. The scientific methods involve the systematic process of identifying a problem, experimenting and analyzing the results, making deductions and conclusion. It involves the following steps.

 

THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN BRIEF

· Recognising a problem

· Collecting information on the problem

· Making a hypothesis

· Devising an experiment

· Observation and recording results

· Analysing the results

· Drawing conclusion and Generalising

IMPORTANCE OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS

1. It provides a systematic process for arriving at a logical conclusion.

2. It provides uniformity in all fields of science.

3. It provides knowledge which can be verified.

 

IMPLICATION FOR TEACHING

Science is inevitable to the development of a nation, as such, it is important that children are introduced to it at early stages, hence, it introduction into the primary and junior secondary school curriculum. Science at the basic level is considered to have three components such as process skills, attitude and interest and the pupils must be exposed to all these three components.

 

Science is taught at the basic schools (i.e. Primary and JHS) so as to;

1. Help pupils to acquire skills such as process skills e.g. Observation, manipulation, communication, analysis of data etc.

2. Help pupils to acquire scientific attitude and interests. These include the desire to look for the truth, honesty in reporting, objectivity in reporting and observation.

3. Develop self-reliance

4. Helps pupils to develop social skills for co-operation with other members of the community and the nation.

5. Help pupils to become analytical thinkers.

6. Help pupils to operate successfully in this scientific age.

7. Helps them to be able to acquire scientific careers.

 

 

 

THE PROCESS SKILLS/SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

This is what the scientist does to arrive at the scientific truth. Science process skills are the relevant basic skills which pupils use to acquire knowledge and to solve problem.

The basic process skills and their explanations

OBSERVING: This involves the use of the senses to obtain information or knowledge.

PLANNING: This is defining a problem and thinking of ways to solve it through experimentation or some structured investigation.

CLASSIFYING: Placing objects or event into categories based on specific criteria or final characteristics (e.g. size, shape, colour, etc.)

MANIPULATING: This is the skilful handling of roots and objects to accomplish a task.

MEASURING: This is the accurate use of calibrated tool or instruments and equipments to arrive at the desired results.

INFERRING: Putting several pieces of information together and making some sense of the whole.

DESIGNING EXPERIMENT: Determining the nature of experiment and listing the requirements and materials necessary for the experiment or investigation.

EXPERIMENTING/FAIR TESTING: Interacting with materials to find out scientific knowledge for yourself.

COMMUNICATING: Ability to present information or findings accurately in written form, orally or pictorially so that it can be understood by others.

GENERALIZING: Extending the conclusion of an experiment to other similar situations of being able to predict possible solutions to similar problems based on the results of previous experiment.

PREDICTING: Forecasting what future observation will be, based on previous observations.

HYPOTHESISING: Suggesting reasons for events or phenomena which can be tested scientifically. It involves applying concepts and ideas from previous experience.

 

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE

For success in any endeavour, the individual needs to cultivate attitudes relevant to that area of endeavour.  The learning of Integrated Science should aim at the acquisition of the following attitudes by pupils;

CURIOSITY: The inclination or feeling towards seeking information about how things work in a variety of fields.

PERSEVERANCE: The ability to pursue a problem until a satisfying solution is found

FLEXIBILITY IN IDEAS: Willingness to collect opinions in the face of more plausible evidence

RESPECT FOR EVIDENCE: Willingness to collect data in one’s investigation, and also have respect for data collected by others

REFLECTION: The habit of critically reviewing ways in which an investigation has been carried out to see possible faults and others ways in which the investigation could be improved upon.

 

SCIENCE AS A PROCESS AND AS A PRODUCT

Knowledge generation in science is by activities. The knowledge is considered as the product and the activities as the process. The product of science comprises off generalization, theories, laws, and principles. The process of science also comprises the process skills. Both the product of science and process of science are inter-related, hence, science cannot be considered as a product or process.

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Scientific knowledge may have the following characteristics;

TENTATIVE: The tentative nature of science indicates that scientific knowledge or truth is subject to change and therefore does not claim to be the truth in its absolute and final sense.

HISTORIC: This implies that the knowledge of today is based on the scientific knowledge of the past. Similarly, today’s scientific knowledge will provide the basis for tomorrow’s knowledge.

EMPIRICAL: This refers to the idea that experience is the only source of knowledge. Thus scientific truth must be based on observation and experimentation and not on theory.

HUMANISTIC: This means that scientific knowledge is a product of mankind resulting from ones effort to impose order on nature of find patterns in nature and involves creative imagination to solve problems.

UNIQUE: This means that scientific knowledge is different and can be identified from other realms of knowledge by its nature and procedures for generating new knowledge

REPLICABLE: This means scientific knowledge is based on evidence which could be obtained by other investigators working at different places.

PUBLIC: This knowledge is based on evidence that is public as opposed to personal.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Technology is the use of scientific knowledge for practical purposes or applications, whether in industry or in our everyday lives. The words science and technology can and are often used interchangeably. But the goal of science is the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake while the goal of technology is to create products that solve problems and improve human life. Simply put, technology is the practical application of science.

Science and technology have been present since time immemorial, in some forms e.g. tools made of stone and wood, devices made of clay (earthenware), logs for transportation were all available to man even before the Iron Age. Some examples of technologies in Ghanaian societies include soap making, herbal medicine preparation, food preservation and food processing techniques etc.

Basically, whenever we use our scientific knowledge to achieve some specific purpose, we're using technology. Technology usually involves a specific piece of equipment, but that equipment can be incredibly simple or dazzlingly complex. It can be anything from the discovery of the wheel, all the way up to computers and MP3 players.

Types of Technology

· Agriculture and Bio-Technology. Developing and using devices and systems to plant, grow, and harvest crops.

· Energy and Power Technology. Developing and using devices and systems to convert, transmit, or process energy.

· Construction Technology. Using systems and processes to put structures on sites where they will be used.

· Manufacturing Technology. Developing and using devices, systems and processes to convert materials into products in a factory.  

· Transportation Technology. Developing and using devices and systems to move people and cargo from an origin point to a destination.

· Medical Technology. Developing and using devices and systems to promote health and cure illnesses.

· Information and Communication Technology. Developing and using devices and systems to gather, process, share information and to share ideas.

 

NEGATIVE EFFECT OF SCIENCE

Pollution

· Air

· Water

· Land

Global warming

Ozone layer depletion

Deforestation

Land degradation

Erosion

Weapons of mass killing

Radiation

 

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

i. They are both interwoven

ii. They both create or solve human problems

iii. Both are activity based.

iv. Both are reproducible

 

 

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCIENCE	TECHNOLOGY
1. Knowledge generating process   2. A way of learning which involves first-hand experience, enquiry, problem solving, interpretation and communication of ideas. 3. The product of science cannot be touched. 4. The product science can be demonstrated and understood	1. The process by which scientific knowledge and discoveries are applied and use. 2. A process of using scientific materials and human resources to achieve human purpose. 3. The product of technology such as cars and electric fans can be seen and touched 4. The products here can be bought and used without understanding.

 

Traditional beliefs and science

In Ghana there are many cultural beliefs and practices. These can be categorized into three; those that conflict with school science concepts (e.g. smoke rise up to the sky to form clouds that bring rain), those that are complementary to science concepts (e.g. for a good eye sight, take foods prepared with oil palm) and those that do not have any effect on science (e.g. a pregnant woman should eat okro soup to enhance smooth delivery). These beliefs need to be identified by the teacher and brought up in class for discussion, and for possible assimilation, when the science concept is at odds with the pupil’s traditional beliefs and the pupil is obliged to abandon or marginalize an indigenous way of knowing and reconstruct a new, scientific way of knowing. This will place the learner in a better position to the learning of school science.  Pupils with beliefs that conflict with school science tends to have prejudice minds and suffer severe mental conflicts when they come to learning school science. This leaves them confused and may even drop out of school as a result. When these conflicting ideas do not come up for negotiation and assimilation, a smart child may keep both ideas in what is called anthropological or collateral learning, in which the learner successfully navigates the border between science concepts and indigenous knowledge or play the game that Larson (1995) refers to as “Fatima’s Rules,” when science concepts and indigenous knowledge are at odds but the learner creatively and persistently resists assimilation but responds correctly to school science questions.

 

 

 

UNIT 2

TEACHING ‘CONCEPTS OF MATTER’

 

Definition of matter

Matter is the "stuff" that makes up the universe and may be defined as anything that has Mass and occupies space (Volume). All things; living and nonliving – are made of matter, and all matter is composed of individual tiny particles known as atoms. Atoms are the smallest building blocks or units of matter. They come together to form molecules, which are the building blocks for all types of matter

Living things and Non-living things

The term living things refers to things that are now or once were alive. A non-living thing on the other hand is anything that was never alive.

Living things exist and are alive, sustaining life. They own life. Living things have structures known as cells. They grow and exhibit movement or locomotion. They experience metabolism. They are capable of producing a new life which is of their own kind through the process of reproduction. Living things have a life span and are not immortal.

Cellular respiration enables living organisms to acquire energy which is used by cells to perform their functions. They digest food for energy and also excrete waste from the body.                  Examples of living things are: plants and animals; birds, insects, human beings, trees, grasses, etc.

 

Fig 1: Concept map on characteristics of living things

 

Non-living things are not alive. They do not possess life. They do not have cells and do not grow or show locomotion/movement. They do not undergo metabolism with anabolic and catabolic reactions. They do not reproduce.

Non-living things do not have a life span. They do not respire as they do not require food for energy and hence do not excrete. They are destroyed or broken down by external force. Examples of non-living things include stone, pen, book, cycle, bottle, etc.

 

Difference between Living and Nonliving things

LIVING THINGS	NON LIVING THINGS
They possess life.	They do not possess life.
Living things are capable of giving birth to their young one.	Non-living things do not reproduce.
For survival, living things are depended on water, air, and food.	They are self-dependent.
Living things are sensitive and responsive to stimuli	Non-living things are not sensitive and do not respond to stimuli
Metabolic reactions occur constantly in all living things.	There are no metabolic reactions in non-living things.
Living organisms undergo growth and development.	Non-living things do not grow or develop.
They have a lifespan and are not immortal.	They have no lifespan and are immortal.
Living things move from one place to another.	Non-living things cannot move by themselves.
They respire and exchange of gases takes place in their cells.	Non-living things do not respire.
Example: Humans, animals, plants, insects.	Example: Rock, pen, buildings, gadgets.

Table 1: Difference between Living and Nonliving things

 

Some criteria used by scientists to classify matter as living and non-living things are;

a. Living beings can grow and develop.

b. Living beings obtain and use energy.

c. Living beings adapt to their environment.

d. All living beings are made of one or more cells.

e. Living beings respond to their environment or stimuli.

f. All living things excrete to remove waste material from the body.

g. Living things have the ability to give birth to their young once through the process of reproduction.

h. All living beings require energy to perform different metabolic activities and they gain energy from food/ nutrition.

i. All living beings, apart from plants move from one place to another. This type of movement is called locomotion.

j. All living things, including humans, animals, plants, birds, and insects require oxygen gas to breath and produce energy.

For something to be classified as a living thing it must obey all the above rules, for example, an icicle, although it grows (increase its mass or length), is still a non-living thing because it cannot reproduce, or respond to stimuli.

 

How is matter related to life?

One of the characteristics used to define life is the need for a constant supply of matter. This means that in any organism, matter is constantly being used to build and sustain the organism. Cell parts are continuously being replaced. In the thousands of chemical processes that go on inside a cell, atoms and molecules are both input and output. On a molecular level, almost all the matter that composes an organism at some point becomes part of the waste products that are expelled into the external environment. This matter must continuously be replaced. Some properties of matter characterize its connection to life. Some of these include:

§ Matter can change states

The water (H₂O) molecule in its three states; solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (vapor) can change states, usually as a result of changes in temperature or pressure. As part of life’s chemical reactions, atoms can be moved around to molecules in different states. In photosynthesis, for example, the carbon in carbon dioxide gas and the hydrogen in liquid water become part of a sugar molecule, which is a solid.

 

§ The basic units of matter cannot change forms: As far as life is concerned, a carbon atom will remain a carbon atom no matter how it moves around from molecule to molecule. With a few exceptions that occur in extreme conditions, the atom which is the basic units of matter cannot change forms.

 

§ Matter can be conserved: A property that matter shares with energy is that it can be conserved. This means that the total amount of matter that is part of a system stays the same, even if the matter changes state or the atoms and molecules are rearranged in chemical reactions many times. This translates to the level of atoms. If you start with a certain number of carbon atoms, for example, you will end with that same number even though they may be in different molecules.

 

§ Matter stores energy: Atoms and molecules represent stored energy. The type of energy that sustains life is the chemical energy stored in food. Matter and energy travel together in food along food chains. While the amount of useful energy decreases as energy changes form at each link in a food chain (i.e., it becomes heat energy), matter does not change form and ultimately remains available to the living world.

Classification of Matter

Matter can be divided into three major categories namely solids, liquids and gases. In chemistry matter has further been divided into elements, mixtures, and compounds.

The classification into gases, liquids and solids is referred to as Physical classification while the classification into elements, mixtures and compounds is Chemical classification.

 

 

Fig 2: Classification of matter

A mixture is substance formed when two or more constituents are joined together physically. The constituents can be elements or compounds, or both. They can be separated by physical means. Examples of mixtures include air, soil, urine, milk, blood, petroleum, brass, etc. Mixtures can further be classified into homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.

Pure substances are also categorized further as elements and compounds. An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler units by ordinary chemical process. They form the building blocks of all other substances. There are 118 known elements of which ninety are naturally occurring whiles the rest are made in the laboratory artificially. Elements are grouped into metals, non-metals and metalloids. These elements include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe). Nonliving — or inorganic — matter contains these elements too, but in very different proportions.

A compound is a substance formed when two or more different elements are combined chemically. It is formed as a result of chemical change, it is a new substance with different properties from the substance(s) from which it was formed. Some examples of compounds and their component elements are;

· water (H₂O) – Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O)

· Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) – Sodium (Na), Oxygen (O) and Hydrogen (H)

· Glucose – Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O)

The Physical Classification of Matter – States of Matter

Solids

Solids are all those substances having their particles closely packed. The particles have very strong intermolecular forces between them. The particles are firmly held in their positions. These particles do not move much, they have only vibratory motion. Because of this, particles in a solid have very low kinetic energy but a high density. Solids have a definite shape, mass and definite volume. Examples include Wood, stone iron, aluminium, etc.

Liquids 

In a liquid, the particles are more loosely packed and are able to flow around each other.  Liquids comprise of all those substances with weak intermolecular forces. The particles are capable of minimum movement. They have a definite volume. However, they do not have a definite shape. They usually take the shape of the container in which they are placed. Examples include water, oil, blood, milk, etc. Liquids mostly have a lower density as compared to solids and are incredibly difficult to compress. 

Gases 

The particles in gases have a great deal of space between them with very weak forces between their molecules. They therefore have high kinetic energy. Hence, in gases, the molecules are free to move. The distance between molecules is large as compared to solids and liquids. Gases have no fixed shape or volume. If unconfined, their particles will spread out indefinitely; if confined, they tend to completely occupy the container in which they are placed. When a gas is put under pressure by reducing the volume of the container, the space between particles is reduced and the gas is compressed.  E.g. air, oxygen, hydrogen, methane, etc.

Recent advancements have revealed some other states of matter. The two other states of matter that scientists have found recently include the Boson-Einstein condensate which is man-made and plasma which is naturally occurring. 

 

Change of States of Matter

We can change the state of matter from one form to another by changing the conditions of pressure and temperature. Adding or removing energy from matter causes a physical change as matter moves from one state to another. For example, adding thermal energy (heat) to liquid water causes it to become steam or vapor (a gas). And removing energy from liquid water causes it to become ice (a solid). Physical changes can also be caused by motion and pressure.

When temperature or pressure increases, molecules interact more with each other. When pressure increases or temperature decreases, it's easier for atoms and molecules to settle into a more rigid structure. When pressure is released, it's easier for particles to move away from each other.

For example, at normal atmospheric pressure, ice melts as the temperature increases. If you held the temperature steady but lowered the pressure, eventually you would reach a point where the ice would undergo sublimation directly to water vapor. 

Solids: Solids can melt into liquids or sublime into gases. Solids form by deposition from gases or freezing of liquids.

Liquids: Liquids can vaporize into gases or freeze into solids. Liquids form by condensation of gases and melting of solids.

Gases: Gases can ionize into plasma, condense into liquids, or undergo deposition into solids. Gases form from the sublimation of solids, vaporization of liquids, and recombination of plasma.

Plasma: Plasma can recombine to form a gas. Plasma most often forms from ionization of a gas, although if sufficient energy and enough space are available, it's presumably possible for a liquid or solid to ionize directly into a gas.

 

The processes involved in the change of state of matter

There are six distinct changes of phase which happens to different substances at different temperatures. The six changes are:

· Melting:  the process by which a substance changes from the solid state to the liquid state. Example; solid ice to water.

· Freezing: the process through which a substance changes from a liquid to a solid. All liquids except helium undergo freezing when the temperature becomes sufficiently cold.

· Vaporization or evaporation: the process by which molecules undergo a spontaneous transition from a liquid state to a gas state.

· Condensation: the opposite of evaporation, this is the change in the state of matter from the gas state to the liquid state.

· Sublimation: the transition from a solid state to a gas state without passing through an intermediate liquid state. An example is when ice directly transitions into water vapor on a very cold, windy day.

· Deposition: the settling of particles or sediment onto a surface. The particles may originate from a vapor, solution, suspension, or mixture. Deposition refers to process where the substance changes directly from a gas to a solid without going through the liquid phase. It is the opposite of sublimation.

Multiple changes of state can occur at the same time. For example, frozen nitrogen will form both the liquid phase and the vapour phase when exposed to normal temperature and pressure.

 

UNIT THREE

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE SCIENCE CLASS

HAZARD: It is a situation or an action that poses danger or may cause an accident.

AN ACCIDENT: Is any happening or occurrence that causes injury to one or more persons or damage to property or the environment.

 

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN SETTING A LABORATORY

Some or the safety precautions to be observed include the provision of;

1. a minimum of two doors to each laboratory, one near the demonstration table and the other at the far end of the room, (entrance and emergency exit doors)

2. Safety equipment like fire extinguishers, sand buckets, fire blankets, labelled waste containers, protective goggles, rubber gloves, laboratory coats, running tap water, etc.

3. First Aid Kit containing bandages of assorted sizes, a triangular bandage, adhesive plaster, scissors, sterilized cotton-wool, bottle of antiseptic, safety pins, eye bath, etc.

4. Create awareness of danger. Setting lab rules and taking the pupils through them.

 

POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ACCIDENTS

The following are some of the areas that require examination by the science teacher.

1. Windows and door should be in good repair. Maximum ventilation may be necessary in event of excessive fumes, and minimum ventilation in the event of fire.

2. Benches, seats and floors: All should be in good repairs so as to avoid spillage and falls.

3. Water/Gas taps and sinks; leaks may cause slippery floor, rotting woodwork and fire.

4. Electrical sockets and wiring; broken sockets should be replaced immediately or sealed off so that they cannot be touched.

5. Storage cupboards and shelves; these should all provide safe storage for apparatus and chemicals. Poison should be stored in locked cupboards.  Flammable materials and chemicals should be stored in a fireproof, well ventilated lockable area away from the main storage areas.

6. Apparatus and equipment: All should be in good repairs, cracked glassware should be repaired or discarded.

7. Inappropriate use of science equipment: it is essential that the children are taught the correct way of using materials in a science classroom. To ensure the safety of children, during science lesson, the teacher must inform the children on the correct use of science equipment.

 

POSSIBLE HAZARDS IN SCIENCE CLASSES

1. Water on polished floor

2. Pupils pouring a liquid from a very large bottle.

3. Liquid being poured above eye-level.

4. Over-crowding likely to cause pupils to knock apparatus off the bench.

5. Heating flammable liquids with naked flames.

6. Spilled acid on a bench in a position such that clothing might mop it up.

7. Pipetting a dangerous liquid by mouth from a vessel in which the tip of the pipette is only just below the surface of the liquid.

8. A glass jar near the edge of a cupboard where it could fall off.

9. Ignorance of laboratory safety rules.

 

SAFETY RULES IN SCIENCE CLASS

i. Follow all instructions exactly as given.

ii. Never pour used reagents back into bottles

iii. Do not taste, eat or drink any laboratory material unless so instructed.

iv. Perform only those experiments assigned by the teacher

v. Any accident or injury must be reported to the teacher.

vi. No equipment should be used unless directed by the teacher.

vii. Test for odours of gases by wafting the hand over the sample and sniffing cautiously.

viii. When using a volatile liquid such as alcohol care must be taken that no naked flame is allowed near the liquid.

ix. Chemicals in the eye should be washed away immediately with plenty of running water.

x. When heating liquid in boiling tubes heat from the upper portion of the liquid downwards, otherwise the content of the text-tube will be blown out violently.

xi. Never add water to concentrated acid. If dilute acid is needed, then the concentrated acid should always be added to the water in small quantities while constantly stirred.

xii. When doing practical work involving heating substances in test-tubes, never look into the mouth of the test-tub while it is being heated. Also do not point thee mouth of the test- tube in the direction of any other pupil.

xiii. Do not change the corks of the reagent bottles.

 

Safety Symbols/Signs

Safety symbols or signs are signs which give message about health and safety by means of a combination of geometric form, safety colour and symbol or text (words, letters, numbers) or both. They are conventional communication tools that help to indicate various hazards present as well as giving required information and safety instruction. Safety signs or symbols can be categorized into warning signs, prohibition signs, mandatory signs and safe condition signs.

i. Warning signs give the warning of a hazard.

ii. Prohibition signs indicate that certain behaviours are unacceptable.

iii. Mandatory signs indicate that a specific action must be taken.

iv. Safe condition signs provide information on safe conditions.

Safety colour	Warning purpose	Examples of use
RED	Stop     Prohibition       Fire-fighting	Stop signs   Identification, colour of emergency shut-down devices   Showing fire hose, Ladder, emergency telephone, fire extinguisher
YELLOW	Caution, risk of danger	Identification of hazards (fire, explosion, chemical, radiation, etc.) Warning signs Identification of thresholds Obstacles Risk of collision
BLUE	Mandatory action	Obligation to wear PPE Mandatory signs
GREEN	Safe condition	Identification of safety showers, First Aid points Emergency exits signs

 

 

 

 

 

 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT

No situation in life is accident free, you must not panic in case of accident, and if you do, you will only tend to aggravate the situation.

When there is accident what to do is to administer First Aid and then transfer the patient immediately to the clinic or hospital. No attempt should be made to give expert treatment, since; such attempts might only make matters worse. During first aid, calmly and confidently reassure the injured. A person who is almost unconscious can still hear well. Do not discuss or allow others to discuss the injury or make frightening uninformed comments on the severity of the wound.

In an accident involving many people the most severely injured person must be treated first.

 

FIRST AID

It is the immediate treatment given to an injured person before being taken to see a doctor.

AIMS OF FIRST AID

1. To prevent the situation from getting worse

2. To keep the injured person alive

3. To arrest bleeding.

 

Items that can be found in a First Aid Box include:

i. Eye lotion vii. Pain relieving drugs

ii. Scissors / blade            viii. Adhesive plaster

iii. Gentian violet             ix. Cotton wool

iv. Safety pins x. Lint

v. Antiseptic xi. Bottle of water

vi. Bandages of assorted size e.g. Triangular bandage

 

FIRST AID TREATMENT

Some of the common accidents which may occur in the course of science teaching that will require first aid include;

1. Shock 4. Eye accidents

2. Burns and scalds 5. Cuts or fracture

3. Chemical  burns

 

SHOCK

Shock results in weakness caused by the loss of blood pressure. Symptoms of shock are;

1. a rapid weak pulse

2. cold clammy skin

3. shallow rapid breathing

4. casualty looks collapsed and the face becomes pale

Assume that a person is shocked; in all cases of electric shock, drowning, burns and serious injury/bleeding, the person should be made to lie down with the feet raised slightly and kept warm, this is to maintain blood pressure in the brain. When the shock is mild, warm drinks of tea and coffee may be given.

When the person is unconscious (severe shock), do not give anything to drink and do not try to warm the patient but loosen any tight clothing around the neck, chest and waist. Position the person in a comma shape, so that any liquid in the mouth can drain out.

For electric shock, the first thing to do is to switch off the current supply. If it is not possible to switch off the power, move the patient with an insulator.

 

If breathing ceases, call for assistance and try resuscitating through CPR (CardioPulmonary Resuscitation). Check online for guidelines to the use of the CPR.

 

BURNS AND SCALDS

A burn is caused by dry heat such as a flame or hot object and SCALD is caused by steam or boiling water.

The treatment is the same for both except that for scalds, any wet clothing should be carefully removed but burned clothing should be left in place. Treatment is to flood the burned or scalded area with clean cold water for at least 10 minutes or in the case of hands and arms immerse the limb in running cold water.

 

CHEMICAL BURNS (FROM ACID)

Place the affected part under the tap and wash for 20 minutes. Where there is no running water, wash with a large amount of water. Small amounts are dangerous due to heat of dilution. When most of the acid is removed, wash the wound with sodium bicarbonate (Na₂CO₃). This neutralizes any remaining acid. Na₂CO₃ + 2HX         2NaX + CO₂ + H₂O

Note; never put an alkali on the acid until after washing, this is because the heat of neutralization may cause considerable burn.

 

ALKALI

These are treated as acid burns except that a dilute acetic acid solution of about 1% is used in place of sodium bicarbonate.

 

POTASSIUM METALS

Remove any metal and then flood with water and wash for about 10 minutes and cover with gauze or lint and bandage.

 

EYE ACCIDENT

Foreign materials in the eye; if the material is glass, do not attempt to remove it but if contaminated wash the eye briefly with water. Do not allow the patient to rub or touch the eye and keep the patient as still as possible and call for a doctor.               

 

ACID, ALKALI OR BROMINE IN THE EYE

Wash the eye immediately for at least 20 minutes either by flushing with large volume of water or by instructing the patient to blink the eyelid under water.

 

CUTS

Minor cuts

Remove dirt or glass and wash with tap water. Apply a clean dry sterile dressing.

 

Deep Cut resulting in Arterial Bleeding

Lay the patient down and raise the limb. Apply pressure over the wound with a thick pad of gauze or lint. If the pad becomes soaked through with blood, do not move it, place another large pad on top and maintain pressure by a firm bandage. Rush the patient to the hospital.

POISONS

1. In the mouth: Spit out immediately and wash with much water.

2. Swallowed (including acids or alkali)

Give some water followed by magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) for acid. For other poisons, give the victim milk to drink but no emetic (medicine to induce vomiting). Rush the person to the hospital.

 

MANAGING FIRE

Fire is caused by the contact between flammable materials, an appropriate amount of heat energy and a good supply of oxygen from the air. The heat energy may be provided by;

i. Naked flame, example, matches, cigarette stub.

ii. Electrical devices can overheat causing wires to become red hot and melt plastic insulators

iii. Sparks resulting from short circuits may be sufficient to start fire

iv. Gas leakage (LPG) due to one’s inability to turn off gas taps.

Examples of flammable materials that fuel fires are; wood, paper, grass, plastics, oil, fuel, paints, ethanol, charcoal, kerosene etc. If the air supply to the fire is reduced or removed, or the heat is suppressed or the flammable material is removed, the fire will be extinguished.

 

Fire extinguishers are the main fire fighting equipment for small fires and at the first stage of large fires. The main methods used to extinguish fire include;

1. Fire blankets 5. soda acid (carbon dioxide, water base)

2. Foam 6. water (pump)

3. Sand buckets 7. dry powder

4. carbon dioxide

The outbreak of fire may be a life and death matter, hence, people working in a science laboratory or any building should know the location of the fire extinguishers and how to operate it

 

WAYS TO EXTINGUISH FIRE AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS

1. FIRE BLANKET

Pull down the two tapes attached to the blanket and cover the fire with the blanket. If a person is on fire prevent him from running or fanning the flame. Wrap the blanket round him or if he is on the floor roll the blanket around him.

How it works; it covers the fire and prevents air from getting to the fire.

Suitability; it is suitable for burning clothing and small isolated fires which can easily be covered.

2. SAND BUCKET

Pour the sand over the fire

How it works

As the fire blankets, the sand also covers the fire and prevent air from reaching it.

 

3. CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHER

Initially direct the carbon dioxide stream at the edges of the fire, then across and upward.

How it works; It cuts out the supply of oxygen from the fire. It is suitable and safe to use for electrical fire

 

4. FOAM EXTINGUISHER

Direct foam to fall on the fire not on the burning substance it works as in carbon dioxide extinguisher

Suitability; it is suitable for many fire except an electrical fire if the foam is water based.

 

5. WATER EXTINGUISHER

With the foot firmly on the floor, direct the water at the base of the fire.

How it works; water lower the temperature and prevents oxygen coming into contact with the fires.

Suitability; Suitable for many fires except for electrical and oil/fuel fires, example, petrol and paraffin fire.

 

6. DRY POWDER

Direct it first, at the base of the flames and then upwards to the rest of the flame. The powder works by covering the fire thereby preventing air from coming into contact with it

Suitability; safe for all fires and does not wet the burning material.

 

CLASSES OF FIRE AND HOW TO EXTINGUISH THEM

Depending on the flammable materials burning, fires can be classified as Classes A, B, C or D. The table below indicates the class of fire, the flammable material and the most suitable extinguisher that should be used.

CLASS OF FIRE	FLAMMABLE MATERIALS INVOLVED	HOW TO EXTINGUISH
Class A	Ordinary combustibles e.g. wood, rubber, plastics, clothes, paper, etc.	Spraying with water from a hose or a CO2 expelled extinguisher, soda-acid may be used if water is not available.
Class B	Liquids or liquefiable, e.g. cooking fat, oil, paraffin, petrol, methylated spirits	i. Cover the flame with a fire blanket ii. Spray with a CO2 extinguisher iii. Can cover with a blanket and spray with an extinguisher as well. iv. A foam extinguisher can be sprayed on the fire
Class C	Electrical materials, gaseous-gases	Switch off power before tackling the fire. Spray with CO2 or vaporising liquid extinguisher Dry Powder extinguisher can also be used but may damage the equipment. Note: Do not use water or foam because of their electrical conductivity.
Class D	Metals	Cover with dry sand Use appropriate dry powder extinguisher Removal of unrelated metal/un-burnt metal

 

 

 

 

 

UNIT FOUR

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUALITIES

 

Units and quantities of measurement

Typical day-to-day communications are often vague and leave much to be assumed. A communication between people for example could involve one person describing some person, object, or event to a second person. The description is made by using referents and comparisons that the second person may or may not have in mind. Thus, such attributes as “long” fingernails or “short” hair may have entirely different meanings to different people involved in a conversation. When a buyer asks a seller how much the wares cost, you would hear things like “two thousand,” “one thousand, five hundred,” etc. Assumptions and vagueness can be avoided by using measurement in a description. Measurement is a process of comparing a property to a well-defined and agreed-upon referent. The well-defined and agreed-upon referent is used as a standard called a unit.

 

Measurement Systems

Measurement is a process that brings precision to a description by specifying the “how much” and “of what” of a property in a particular situation. A number expresses the value of the property, and the name of a unit tells you what the referent is as well as implying the procedure for obtaining the number. Referent units must be defined and established, however, if others are to understand and reproduce a measurement. When standards are established, the referent unit is called a standard unit. The use of standard units makes it possible to communicate and duplicate measurements. Standard units are usually defined and established by governments and their agencies that are created for that purpose.

 

There are two major systems of standard units in use today, the English system and the metric system. The metric system is used throughout the world except in the United States, where both systems are in use.

 

People have used referents to communicate about properties of things throughout human history. The ancient Greek Civilization, for example, used units of stadia to communicate about distances and elevations. The “stadium” was a referent unit based on the length of the racetrack at the local stadium. Later civilizations, such as the ancient Romans adopted the stadia and other referent units from the ancient Greeks. Some of these same referent units were later adopted by the early English Civilization, which eventually led to the English system of measurement. Some adopted units of the English system were originally based on parts of the human body, presumably because you always had these referents with you. The inch, for example, used the end joint of thumb for a referent. A foot, naturally, was the length of a foot and a yard was the distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the fingers on an arm held straight out. A cubit was the distance from the end of an elbow to the finger tips and a fathom was the distance between the fingertips of two arms held straight out. There were problems with these early units because everyone was not the same size/height. Beginning in the 1300s, the sizes of the units were gradually standardized by various English Kings. In 1875, the United States, along with sixteen other countries, signed the Treaty of the Meter in Paris, France, defining the English units in terms of the metric system.

The metric system was established by the French Academy of Sciences in 1791. The academy created a measurement system that was based on invariable referents in nature not human body parts. In 1960, six standard metric units were established by international agreement. The International System of units, abbreviated SI system has seven units that define standards for the properties of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance and light intensity.

 

Standard Units for the Metric System (Fundamental and Derived Quantities)

If you consider all the properties of all the objects and events in your surroundings, the number seems overwhelming. Yet, close inspection of how properties are measured reveals that some properties are combinations of other properties. Volume, for example is described by the three-length measurements of length, width and height. Area, on the other hand, is described by just the two length measurements of length and width. Length, however, cannot be defined in simpler terms of any other property. There are four properties that cannot be described in simpler terms, and all other properties are combinations of these four. For this reason, they are called the fundamental properties (basic units/basic measurements). A fundamental property cannot be defined in simpler terms other than to describe how it is measured. These four fundamental properties are (1) length (2) mass (3) time and (4) charge.

In addition to the fundamental properties/basic measurements / base units, there are also derived measurements, for example, volume, area which are combinations of the basic measurement of length.

 

Some of the basic (The SI – Standard Units) units commonly used in science teaching are:

Base Quantity	Basic unit name	Symbol	Other Units
Length	Metre	m	Centimeter (cm) millimeter (mm) kilometer (km)
Mass	Kilogramme	kg	gramme (g)
Time	Second	s	minute (min), hour (h)
Temperature	Kelvin	K	Celsius (oC), Fahrenheit (oF)
Current	Ampere	A	milliampere (mA) microampere (µA)
Amount of substance	Mole	Mol
Luminous intensity	candela	cd

   

Some Derived Units are:

Derived Quantity	Derivation	Derived unit name	Expression in terms of SI unit
Area	Length x breadth	square metre	m²
Volume	Length x breadth x height	cubic metre	m³
Density	Mass/volume	kilogram per cubic metre	kg/m3 or kgm-3
Speed or velocity	Distance/time	metre per second	m/s or ms-1
Acceleration	Change in velocity/time	metre per second squared	m/s2 or ms-2
Force	Mass x acceleration due to gravity	newton (N)	Kgm/s2
Pressure	Force / area	Pascal (Pa)	N/m2 or Nm-2
Energy or work	Force x distance	joules (J)	Nm
Power	Work / time	watts (W)	Nm/s Nms-1
Electric potential		volt (V)	Kgm2/AS3 or Kgm2S-3A-1

 

Some simple rules in the use of SI Units

1. No full stop for abbreviation e.g. 20 grammes = 20g

2. When using a symbol, do not use ‘s’ in the plural case e.g. 20 metres = 20m

3. Use capital letters for symbols named after discoverers. Use small letters for names of units.

1ampere = 1A

10 kelvin = 10K

5 volts = 5V

10 newton = 10N

4. Commas should not be used in writing numbers. One thousand should be written as 1000.

5. Power of Ten: for positive powers of ten in which the exponent is more than three, make use of capital letter symbols. However, we use small letters symbols for negative powers of ten, and those with the powers of three and below. Powers with multiples of three have certain prefixes.

 

The table below illustrates the information given above.

Power of ten	prefix	Symbol
1012	Tera	T
109	Giga	G
106	Mega	M
103	Kilo	k
10-3	milli	m
10-6	micro	µ
10-9	nano	n
10-12	pico	p
10-15	femto	f

Power multiples and submultiples of units

 

Quantities and the instruments used to measure them

Quantity	Measuring instruments
Mass	Beam balance, chemical balance / electronic balance
Length	Metre rule, Vernier calipers / pair of calipers, surveyors’ tape, measuring tape
Volume	Graduated beaker, volumetric flask, measuring cylinder, burette pipette.
Time	Stop watch, stop clock, electronic watch, electronic clock
Temperature	Thermometers (absolute, clinical) thermometers
Atmospheric pressure	Barometers (fortins, aneroid) barometers
Electric potential	Voltmeter
Electric current	Ammeter
Luminous intensity	Photometer

 

 

Measurement of mass (using beam balance)

The mass of a body is a measure of the quantity of matter it contains. The mass is usually measured by comparing it with standard masses, using a balance. There are various types. Beam or chemical balance is one such type. Beam balance can measure to accuracy between 0.00lg and 1g. The mass to be measured is placed on the scale pan X, and known masses are added into the other pan Y, until the pointer shows no deflection. The total mass in Y is then equal to the value of the unknown mass.

 

Some scales used in measuring mass and weight

Difference between Mass and Weight

 

Mass	Weight
It is the quantity of matter a substance contains	It is the force of gravity exerted on an object.
It is measured by means of beam balance	It is measured by means of spring balance.
It is constant (it does not change)	It varies over the surface of the earth and from one planet to another.
It has only magnitude and is therefore a scalar quantity	It has both magnitude and direction and is therefore a vector quantity.
It is measured in kilogramme.	It is measured in newton.

 

 

Measurement of Length

Length is the distance between two points. Distance, depth, height and width are measurements of length. Large distances, such as the length of the stadium are measured by means of tapes, graduated in meters. Shorter distances, such as the length of a reading table can be measured with a metre rule. In general, a metre rule can only read to the nearest 0.1cm i.e. to the nearest millimeter.

Smaller lengths, such as the diameter of a rod, the internal diameter of a tube, the depth of a cavity or the thickness of a plate, which cannot be measured with a metre rule are obtained using Vernier calipers. Vernier calipers can usually measure to an accuracy of 0.01cm.

 

 

Some instruments used to measure length

Measurement of volume

Most substances have length, breadth, and thickness or height and occupy space. Volume is the size of, or the amount of space occupied by a substance. Volumes are measured with the help of the units of length; that is, the metre and the centimeter. The unit of volume is the cubic meter (m³). The cubic centimeter (cm³), however, which is a sub-unit of the cubic metre, is often used by scientists because the cubic metre is a very large volume.

 

Instruments for measuring volume

 

Objects may have regular or irregular shapes. The objects with straight sides that can easily be measured with a ruler, e.g. a cube, are said to have regular volumes. The objects with irregular shapes such as a piece of rock, are said to have irregular volumes.

Regular volume

Solids of regular shapes have regular volumes. We can find the volumes of such solids by measuring their dimensions and calculating by means of formulae. If, for example a solid has a length of 8cm, a breadth of 4cm and a height of 1cm, its volume can be found by multiplying length by breadth by height.

 

   volume = length x breadth x height = 8 x 4 x 1

 = 32cm³

 

Irregular volume

In cases where the volume of the object to be measured does not have a regular volume for example, a liquid, a piece of ice, or a piece of rock, a different method can be used. The volumes of liquids and other irregular bodies are best obtained by using special measuring containers.

 

Instruments for measuring volume of irregular object

Examples of measuring containers are:

i. The graduated measuring cylinders

ii. The volumetric flask

iii. The burette

iv. The pipette

 

General precautions to be taken when measuring volume of a liquid

1. Before pouring in the liquid, the cylinder (or any other measuring container) should first be washed with water and then rinsed with a small amount of the liquid to be measured.

2. Then the cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface.

3. When taking a reading, the eye must be positioned at the same level as the surface of the liquid.

 

Finding volume of objects that sink using a measuring cylinder:

Pour some water into a measuring cylinder and record its volume. Slowly lower the solid into the water until it is completely immersed. The water level will rise, giving the volume of the water and the solid. The second volume minus the first volume gives the volume of the solid.

Volume of water = Wcm³

Volume of water + solid = Scm³

Therefore, volume of solid = (S – W) cm³

                                 

 

Using an overflow can:

Pour water into an overflow can until some of it flows out of the spout. Once the flow stops, place a measuring cylinder under the spout. Gently lower the solid into the can. Water will flow out of the can into the cylinder. The volume of the water that is displaced is equal to the volume of the solid. The volume of the displaced water can be read from the graduated measuring cylinder.

 

Finding volume of objects that float using a measuring cylinder:

Substances with irregular shapes, such as cork and wood that do not sink in water can be made do to so with the help of solids that sink. Such solids are called sinkers. For example, the volume of a cork can be found by using a glass stopper as a sinker. Pour water into a measuring cylinder. Gently lower the glass stopper into the water and note the volume of the water.

 

Take out the glass stopper and tie it to the cork. Lower the glass stopper and the cork into the water and note the volume of the water, stopper and cork. The second volume minus the first volume gives the volume of the cork.

 

Volume of water + sinker = S cm³

Volume of water + sinker + cork = C cm³

Therefore, volume of cork = (C – S) cm³

 

Using an overflow can:

Obtain the volume of the sinker using the overflow can and a graduated cylinder. Tie the sinker to the cork, and obtain the volume of both the sinker and cork by the same method. Thus, the second volume minus the first volume gives the volume of the cork.

 

Volume of water + sinker = S cm³

Volume of water + sinker + cork = C cm³

Therefore, volume of cork = (C – S) cm³

 

Measurement of Density

In science, we refer to the heaviness or lightness of different materials by the use of the term, density. Density is the properties of solids, liquids and gases. Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.

 

Note

1cm³ is a unit volume, 1m³ is also a unit volume. This means that the mass of 1cm³ of a substance is the density of the substance, the mass of 1m³ of a substance is also the density of the substance.

Mathematically, density is given by:

Density  = mass

                  volume

The S.I. unit of density is kg/m³ (kgm^-³). Density may also be measured in g/cm³.

The following relationship between mass, volume and density can be establish.

(i) Mass = Density ×Volume          (ii) volume = Mass

                                                                                  Density

Example

An object of mass 20kg has a volume of 40m³. Calculate its density.

Solution

Density = Mass mass = 20kg volume = 40m³

                 Volume

.: Density = 20 = 0.5kg/m³

        40

 

Measurement of Time

Time is the intervals between two event, e.g. the interval between the rise and the setting of the sun, the interval between when one is born and when one dies, the interval between breathe in the breathe  out.

Time can be measured in years, month, weeks, days, hours, minutes and seconds etc. The S.I unit of time is the second.

 

60 seconds = 1minute

60 minutes = 1hour

24hours = 1day

7days = 1week

3,600seconds = 1hour

 

Time measuring devices are stopwatch, stop clock, simple pendulum, the human pulse, etc.

 

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPARATURE

Temperature is a physical quantity which measures the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Temperature is therefore defined as degree of hotness of a body. The instrument used in measuring temperature is called thermometer.

The units of temperature are:

(i) Degree Celsius (°C)    (ii)  Degree Fahrenheit (°F) (iii) Kelvin (K)

The S.I. unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K). Temperature of a body is not the same as the heat possessed by the body

Thermometers

Thermometers are instruments used to measure temperatures. Examples of thermometer are:

(i) Liquid-in-glass thermometer

(ii) Bimetallic thermometer

(iii) Gas thermometer.

(iv) Thermocouple thermometer

(v) Pyrometer.

Thermometers use some measurable properties of substances which are sensitive to temperature change. Any measurable physical property of a substance which changes continuously with temperature may be used for temperature measurement. For instance;

a) The liquid in glass thermometer (eg. Mercury in glass thermometer) uses the expansion of a liquid due to temperature.

b) The constant volume gas thermometer uses the pressure change with temperature of a gas at constant volume.

c) The resistance thermometer depends on the change of electrical resistance of a pure metal with temperature.

d) Thermocouple (thermoelectric) thermometers, uses the electromotive force changes with temperature of two metals joined together.

e) The pyrometer is a remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of surfaces. They are non-contact.

Temperature Scales

There are several temperature scales but three common scales are the:
  (i)     Fahrenheit scale    (ii)    Celsius scale (iii)   Thermodynamic (Kelvin) scale

Conversion of Celsius to Kelvin Scales

The Celsius and the Kelvin scales are related by the equation T = θ + 273 or θ = T – 273 where θ is temperature in degree Celsius (°C) and T is temperature in Kelvin.

UNIT FIVE

FORCE

 

A force is a push or a pull. Force is also defined as that which changes or tends to change a body’s state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line.  A force can alter the speed or direction of motion of a body. Girls and boys play with toys by pushing them and pulling them. The direction of motion of those toys is shown by the direction of the force. A force can cause a moving object to stop. For example, a footballer stops a moving football by applying a force. A driver applies the brakes to stop a moving vehicle, and soldiers use sandbags to stop an advancing bullet a force can also make objects change direction. For example, a hockey player uses a hockey stick to deflect the ball to team member. Remember that a force can set an object into   motion, increase or decrease the motion, change the direction of the motion, change the motion or stop it. These effects are summarized in Newton’s law of motion which will be discussed later.

The SI unit of force is Newton (N) or kgms^-2.  Force is a vector quantity since it has both magnitude and direction.

Mathematically, Force = mass x acceleration, F = mа, where m and а are the mass and acceleration of the body respectively.

 

Worked Examples

1. A force of 50N act on a body of mass 50kg, determine the acceleration of the body?

Solution

Force = mass x acceleration, but F = 50N and m = 50kg

F = ma, a = F/m, a = 50N/50kg, a = 1ms^-2.

 

2. Find the force of a body which has a mass of 0.3kg and an acceleration of 4ms^-2.

Solution

F = ma, m = 0.3kg and a = 4ms^-2. F = 0.3kg x 4ms^-2, F = 1.2N.

 

3. A car of mass 200kg is acted upon by a force of 400n. What is the acceleration of the car?

Solution

F = ma, a = F/m, a = 400N/200kg, a = 2ms^-2.

 

Why are Forces Important? – Effects of Force

Forces are important because they cause the following effects.

• Increases (accelerates) speed of moving body.

• Decreases (retards) speed of moving body.

• It changes the direction of moving objects.

• Stop things from moving or causes moving body to stop.

• Make stationary things to move.  

• It can change the shape of object (causes deformation).

Groups and Types of Forces

Any type of force can be grouped into two main types. These are contact force and field force.

 

Contact Force: This is the force that comes into play when two bodies are in contact. Examples are friction, viscosity, cohesion, uptrust and adhesion.

 

Force Field: It is a force which can be exerted through space on a body without the bodies being in contact. A stone held in the hand is not in contact with the earth, yet we can feel the earth’s gravitational field on it. Similarly, a nail may not be in contact with a magnet but the magnet can exert its force on it. Some examples of force fields are gravitational force, magnetic force, electrostatic force etc.

Types of Forces

Forces experienced in everyday life include the following:

Frictional Force

Magnetic Force

Electrostatic Force

Tensional Force

Molecular Force (Capillarity)

Gravitational Force

Upthrust

Weight

Electromagnetic Force

Centripetal Force

Centrifugal Force

Compressive Force

 Surface Tension

Viscosity

NOTE: When a force is applied it may result in one or more of the above conditions.

 

Gravitation Force or Force of Gravity: This is a force which pulls objects towards the earth. For example, when a stone is thrown into space it is pulled back onto the earth by force of gravity.

Weight: Weight is the gravitational force between the earth and an object. It is the force a body exerts on its support.

 

FRICTIONAL FORCE

 It is a contact force. It is the force that tends to prevent movement or retards the motion of two or more bodies sliding over each other everyday activities such a walking, grinding or fan belts transmitting motion from one point of a machine to another, involve frictional force. A friction force often produces a noise and wear and tear. Friction can also produce heat energy. For example a surface moving or slipping over another surface (dragging a stone block).

Friction also occurs in fluids and this is called viscosity. Viscosity is the internal frictional force in fluids. Viscosity opposes the motion of a body in a fluid. An example is an object trying to move through a liquid or gas (a fish swimming in water).

 

Causes of Friction

Surface is never perfectly smooth. No matter how smooth a surface appears to be, it is covered with projections and depression or small irregularities. These surfaces become interlocked and resist motion of one surface relative to the other.

It is also due to the attraction of the material of the two surfaces for each other although the projections on surfaces playa part

 

Types of Frictional Forces

Static (Limiting) Friction: Is the frictional force between surfaces that are tending to move relative to each other. This prevents motion.

Dynamic (Sliding) Friction: Is the frictional force between two surfaces that are moving relative to each other. This slows down motion.

Advantages of Friction

a. It's enables vehicles to brake or stop.

b. It keeps the feet from sliding during walking.

c. Enables screws bolts and nails to become tightened in holes.

d. Enables humans to strike matches to make fire.

e. It makes motion of vehicles possible by preventing the tyres from sliding.

Disadvantages of Friction

It causes wearing a way of machine parts that rub against each other.

It reduces the efficiency of a machine by dissipating the energy of the machine as useless heat.

It produces resistance to motion.

It heats up moving parts of a machine and can lead to damage to machinery. Example is melting.

 

Methods of Reducing Friction 

Surfaces in contact must be smoothed and also polished.

Powdering of surfaces in contact.

Lubricating (oiling, greasing) of surfaces in contact.

Rollers and ball bearing are used between moving parts of machines.

Rotating objects can be suspended in vacuum.

 

VISCOSITY (FLUID FRICTION)

It is defined as the property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes relative motion of liquid layers over each other or gas in motion. Viscosity is the internal friction fluid. In other words, it’s the type of frictional force in fluids.

 

Viscous

They are liquids (fluid) which does not flow easily of allow objects to move through it. Examples are, gas oil, grease, mercury, honey and viscous lava, Glycerin, tar, porridge. Some of the properties of viscous liquids are that,

They do not flow easily

They are very thick  

Objects move through them very slowly.

Examples of liquids with low viscosity are water, kerosene, petrol etc.

 

Application of Viscosity

In industry, the selection of lubricants for various machines depends on the viscosity of the lubricants to keep metal surfaces from rubbing against each other. If this is not done effectively the metals wear out quickly and become hot, and the surfaces seize together.

In generally, heavy - duty machines needs highly viscous liquids like grease for their operation.

Upthrust: Upthrust is the force acting vertically upwards upon a body when it is immersed in a fluid.

Tensional force: It is the force needed to compress or stretch an elastic material. An example is a force in a spring or string.

Magnetic Force: Acts on magnetic substances. For example, the attraction between a magnet and a metallic substance like a nail.

Electromagnetic Force: This is produced as a result of flow of electric current through a magnetic substance as in electric bells, loud speakers, electric motors and car ignition systems.

Electric Force: It acts during the production of electricity.

Electrostatic Force: Act between electric charges that are stationary bodies. Example is the attraction between a plastic comb and human hair.

Centrifugal Force: It is the force, which defects a body from its linear path and compels it to move along a curved path. A force is needed to move a body at constant speed along a circular path, and this force acts towards the center of the circular path.

It is also the force that keeps a body moving in a circle directed towards the center. An example is the moon traveling round the earth in a circular orbit.

Centripetal Force: It is the force that keeps a body moving in a circle towards the centre of the circle. For example, the moon travels round the earth in a circle orbit.

Tensional Force: This type of force occurs in stretched bodies. For example;

· Tension in rope or string tied to a tree to a goat.

· Tension when an elastic string is stretched as in catapult.

· Tension in spring when stretched.

· String of a guitar when played.

Compressional Force: Force that takes place when an object is compressed or squeezed.

Molecular Force: This is the force, which exists between molecules of matter. They are of two types;

The Force Adhesion: Is the kind of force that exists between molecules of different kind. Example is the adhesion between water and glass molecules when the water is poured into glass cup. That is why, the meniscus of water in glass curves upwards because the adhesion of water to glass is stronger than Cohesion of water.

The Force of Cohesion: It is the force of attraction between molecules of the same substances. It can also be defined as the kind of molecular force of attraction between molecules of the same kind. Example is the Cohesion between water molecules.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

UNIT SIX

EARTH MOVEMENT

The two major earth movements

The two major Earth movements are Rotation and Revolution

i. Rotation: This is the turning of the earth on its axis which produces day and night. It rotates at a   uniform rate making one complete turn (360˚), with respect to the sun in 24 hours. It turns in eastward direction, which makes the sun to rise in the east and set in the west.

The earth rotates in a direction opposing to the apparent movement of the sun, moon and the stars across the sky. Looking down a globe from above the North Pole, the direction of rotation is counter-clockwise.

 

The rotation of the earth causes:   

1. One major effect of the rotation of the earth is the alternating day and night.

Figure 1:  Rotation of earth

 As the earth rotates on it axis, the area which will be away from the sun will be in darkness (night) while the other area facing the sun will have light (day)

 2.  Circulatory of the atmosphere and the ocean.                                                                                

 3. Daily rising and falling of ocean tides.

 4. Deflection of winds and ocean currents.

  5. Differences of one hour between meridians of 15˚apart.

ii. Revolution: This is the revolving of the earth on a slightly elliptical orbit at an average distance from the sun (about 150km). The earth orbits around the sun once every 365 ¼ days, but the difficulty in calculating the quarter day makes the use of 365 days for one year and 366 days for a leap year. The path along which the earth revolves round the sun is called the Orbital plane or Ecliptal plane.

The earth comes closer to the sun (periphelion) around 3^rd January, with a distance of about 147.5 million kilometers. The earth is further away from the sun (aphelion) around 4^th July, with a distance of about 152 million kilometers, but the differences in the distant do not affect the earth’s much.

 

The revolution of the earth around the sun on its orbit and the inclination of the earth on its axis causes:  

 1. Varying length of day and night at different times of the year.

 2.  The changing in the altitude of midday sun at different times of the year.

     3.  The changes of seasons. (Autumn, Winter, Spring, Summer)

The effects of the earth’s revolution

When the sun is overhead at midday at the equator on 21^st March and September 23^rd each year (Equinoxes), then the day and night are equal in length for all parts of the world within that month. On 21^st March the northern hemisphere will be in their spring, while the southern hemisphere will be in their autumn seasons. On September 21^st, the northern hemisphere will be in their autumn while the southern hemisphere will be in their spring.

In June 21^st, the sun is overhead at Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere. When it happens, the northern hemisphere is in their summer, while in the southern hemisphere will be in the winter. The sun is visible for 24 hours in the Arctic Circle for each day and darkness in the Antarctic Circle for 24 hours, lasted for several months, but at the Equator the length of day and night are still equal.

In December 22^nd, the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn. The northern hemisphere will be in their winter, while the southern hemisphere is in their summer. In the Antarctic Circle the sun is visible for 24 hours and the Arctic Circle has night for 24 hours for several days.

Figure 2: Revolution of the earth which causes seasons

  The revolution of the earth round the sun makes the earth surface to experience a rise in temperature during one part of the year and a corresponding fall of temperature in another part of the year. This rise and fall of temperatures affect climate and therefore results in the formation of the various seasons in the world.

There is a belt of heat associated to the overhead of midday sun as the earth moves round the sun. The northern hemisphere (Tropic of Cancer) receives maximum solar radiation during June and minimum in December, thus summer and winter. Spring and autumn are two shorter seasons which occur between the two main seasons. However in the tropics there are two major seasons i.e. the wet season and the dry season.

 

UNIT SEVEN

CHILD’S STUDY/LEARNING STYLES

For many years students have had to struggle with how to learn. Each student has their particular style. You may have noticed that even your own children or sibling learn differently than you do causing you to question why they are not as interested or not “catching on” the same way you did at their age. You may also be wondering why some students were “better” learners than others or why you liked a certain subject over another. These are actually very important observations. Educational science has studied these questions for years and has determined that when some individuals struggle with learning it may be entirely a question of how they are being handled.

What is a child’s study style?

It is simply a way to explain a student's preferred method of learning and development. Identifying particular child’s study styles children display is not meant to pigeon-hole them. It is to help target the way they learn best so they can create new meaning and develop new neurological pathways.

Types of learning styles

The theory of different modes to acquire knowledge is based on Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory. These are;

1. Visual (Spatial)

As the name suggests, visual learners are those that learn best when they have an image or cue to help them process the information. They may also need to map out or write out their thoughts in order to really process what they are thinking.

These are some of the most common characteristics of visual learners:

Visual learners;

· Have good spatial sense and sense of direction

· Can easily visualize objects, plans, and outcomes

· Like colouring, drawing, and doodling

· Have good colour balance

· Are good at using maps and rarely get lost

For example, a visual learner in a science writing class may process the information better by seeing a movie clip of how a film adapts the features it was based on, instead of listening to the features being read aloud.

 You are a visual learner if: You prefer pictures, images, and mind maps to help you process information.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Use charts, graphs, maps, diagrams, time lines and info graphics.

· Implement digital tools and technology to assist learning.

· Replace words with colours and images.

· Create outlines with different levels instead of blocks of text.

· Highlight important points in text.

PROBLEMS OF VISUALS:  They find it difficult to hear lectures, lack of words. Problems with writing difficulty and understanding that context must be communicated.

2. Aural (Auditory-Musical)

Aural learning is a unique type of learning style, but it is used to classify those who respond primarily to sound. Unsurprisingly, most musicians are aural learners. This is a learning style that isn’t often addressed in many schools because it can be hard to teach outside of music class. These are also individuals who respond best to things such as binaural beats.

Aural learners:

· Find that certain music invokes strong emotions

· Enjoy listening to music in the background while learning

· Have a good sense of pitch or rhythm

· Often hear songs, jingles, and themes tend to pop in their head without prompts

For example, a song that helps you remember the elements in the periodic table is a way to tap into aural learning styles.

You are an aural learner if: You prefer learning through rhythms or tend to use clever rhymes to remember something.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Participate in discussions and debates.

· Read aloud.

· Memorize material.

· Listen to music while you go over material.

· Use jingles or rhymes to remember new material.

· Use mnemonic devices.

PROBLEMS OF AUDITORY: may not be able to do quickly reading• understand graphs and diagrams easily• stay quiet for long periods of time• access learning delivered exclusively in written form• consistently produce legible handwriting.

3. Verbal (Linguistic)

Verbal learners learn best both under verbal instruction and writing. They typically excel with both. These learners are typically those that go into public speaking, writing, journalism, and debating.

 

Verbal learners:

· Express themselves in both written and spoken word

· Enjoy reading and writing

· Like tongue twisters and rhymes

· Has a large vocabulary and enjoys learning new words

For example, reading definitions of a word aloud or writing them down a few times, are ways for verbal learners to process information.

You are a verbal learner if: You need to read content aloud to learn something or prefer to have someone speak the information to you so you can process it.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Take thorough notes.

· Go over old tests.

· Reread and rewrite your notes.

· Make summaries of your notes.

· Create lists with key words and phrases to help you remember concepts.

· Use acronym mnemonics to assist in recall.

4. Physical (Kinesthetic)

If you are someone who likes getting their hands dirty, then you are likely a physical learner. Physical learners are extremely animated and always need to be moving. They learn best by going through the motions of what they are learning.

Physical learners:

· Notice and appreciate the physical world around them, such as textures

· Enjoys sports and exercise along with outdoor activities and working with their hands

· Tend to use and pick up on body language

· Enjoy making models or doing jigsaw puzzles

For example, if something is bothering you or you are trying to wrap your head around a concept, you would rather go for a run or walk than sit down and figure it out.

You are a physical learner if: You do not learn something until you do it, and need to draw out your own diagrams or role play to learn new information. You may also be constantly in motion and speak with your hands.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Hands-on lessons are the ideal method of learning.

· Review and recite notes while doing other physical activities, such as walking, jogging or riding a stationary bike.

· Use role playing or mime games to act out subject material.

· Teach someone else the material.

· Turn lessons into art projects.

· Make graphs, pictures and maps to involve all the senses.

Problems of kinesthetics: may not be able to sit still for long period of time; have difficulty with learning that involves learning by rote or sequencing; have poor handwriting; have difficulty with spelling.

5. Logical (Mathematical)

Most logical thinkers end up being engineers, mathematicians, or pursuing the sciences. This is because they have a very unique way of learning. They are the individuals who want to understand the reason behind content or skills and tend to enjoy games like chess and doing brainteasers.

Logical learners:

· Classify and group information together to better understand it

· Perform complex calculations

· Create procedures for future use, after coming up with a solution to a problem

· Plan agenda, itineraries and even rank and number them

For example, those who prefer making a neat and organized list while studying and extracting key points from material for these lists are typically logical learners.

You are a logical learner if: You can learn something only when you understand the bigger picture, along with the logic, reasoning and systems behind that concept.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Try to understand the key concepts behind lessons. Do not just memorize.

· Extract key information from notes such as statistics and facts to create lists.

· Turn material and lessons into strategic mind games.

· Stimulate your mind by playing computer math games and solving brain teasers.

· Create specific goals and incentives and record your progress.

6. Social (Interpersonal)

As the name suggests, social learners are natural group workers. For students, these are the individuals that seem to be involved in every extracurricular activity. For adults, they are the individuals that like to be engaged with others, work in teams, and ask their peers for feedback in order to learn.

Social learners:

· Prefer to socialize after work or class

· Enjoy playing group sports

· Bounce ideas off among others and to work through issues in a group

· Listen well

· Are often trusted by others for their advice

For example, in school when teachers assign group projects, it is often a way to appeal to social learners.

You are a social learner if: You prefer to work with other people and find you learn best in groups.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Seek cooperative learning settings.

· Use role playing to enhance learning.

· Teach others what you have learned.

· Engage in language exchange programs.

· Join a volunteer or service-oriented group.

· Interview others to learn about their perspectives.

 

7. Solitary (Intrapersonal)

Solitary learners are individuals who simply prefer to learn on their own and keep to themselves. In most situations, this is a learning style for socially introverted people—but not always. There are some people who are extroverts in social situations but prefer to be alone when they are trying to learn. They also tend to be concerned with goals and outcomes.

Solitary learners:

· Spend time on self-analysis

· Prefer to relax or travel away from crowds

· Think independently

· Journal, write, and record personal thoughts and events as a way to improve.

For example, someone who reads self-help books to develop a deeper understanding of themselves is often a solitary learner.

You are a solitary learner if: You need to sit alone and study by yourself in order to retain information.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Find a quiet but comfortable place to study alone.

· Establish personal learning goals and track your progress regularly.

· Keep a learning journal or log.

· Reflect on what you have already learned and think through new material.

· Find connections between what you have already learned and new material.

8. Naturalistic

These types of learners process information best when it is related to finding patterns in nature and applying scientific reasoning to the understanding of living creatures. They usually grow up to be farmers, naturalists or scientists. These learners particularly enjoy being outdoors and connecting with Nature. They are often found observing and appreciating plants and animals in rural settings.

Ways to Enhance Retention

· Imagine your learning material is a new ecosystem you must understand through the recognition of patterns.

· Identify and classify different plants and animals.

· Pick topics that are related to daily life, Nature or people to increase your interest in the subject matter.

· Approach your learning environment as you would field research: Observe and record data.

How to Apply this Knowledge in Your Learning Routine?

So, now that you know what learning style you fall under, what can you do with this information? If you know what learning style (or styles) that you have, you can start applying them to your everyday life, even if you are no longer in school.

While you cannot always ask someone in a meeting to sing a rhythmic song for you so that you remember the information better, you can start using these learning techniques in your everyday life to grasp concepts faster, better, and with greater ease.

There is no wrong way to learn. And even if it may seem strange to others, you need to play to your strengths when trying to learn a new concept so that it really sticks.

By being more aware of how it is that you learn, you may find that you develop new interests, start retaining information from beneficial books better, or that you remember new names and pick up new skills even faster.

child's LEARNING STYLES ACTIVITIES

Visual Learning Style

· Draw pictures

· Focus on using graphs and diagrams

· Use visualization while reading

· Use colours

· Focus on "seeing" the words you try to spell

Auditory Learning Style

· Read out loud

· Talk through information

· Discuss concepts with others

· Listen to information repeatedly and record it

· Sound out unfamiliar words by syllables, blends, digraphs and phonemes

Kinesthetic Learning Style

· Highlight important information

· Walk as you read

· Use role play

· Hold the book in your hands

· Hold a stress ball or chew gum/candy etc

 

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING APPROACH

It is a learning and teaching method that prioritizes student questions, ideas and analyses. To highlight the pedagogy’s nuances, it is important to define inquiry-based learning from both a learner and teacher perspective.

From a student point-of-view, inquiry-based learning focuses on investigating an open question or problem. They must use evidence-based reasoning and creative problem-solving to reach a conclusion, which they must defend or present.

From a teacher point-of-view, inquiry-based teaching focuses on moving students beyond general curiosity into the realms of critical thinking and understanding. You must encourage students to ask questions and support them through the investigation process, understanding when to begin and how to structure an inquiry activity.

Using methods such as guided research, document analysis and question-and-answer sessions, you can run inquiry activities in the form of:

· Case studies

· Group projects

· Research projects

· Field work, especially for science lessons

· Unique exercises tailored to your students

Whichever kind of activity you use, it should allow students to develop unique strategies for solving open questions.

The 4 Types of Inquiry-Based Learning

There are different kinds of inquiry-based learning, which become decreasingly structured and suit different classrooms:

· Confirmation Inquiry: - You give students a question, its answer and the method of reaching this answer. Their goal is to build investigation and critical-thinking skills, learning how the specific method works.

· Structured Inquiry:-You give students an open question and an investigation method. They must use the method to craft an evidence-backed conclusion.

· Guided Inquiry:-You give students an open question. Typically in groups, they design investigation methods to reach a conclusion.

· Open Inquiry: - You give students time and support. They pose original questions that they investigate through their own methods, and eventually present their results to discuss and expand.

Regardless of the type, inquiry-based learning aims to develop students’ abilities to analyze, synthesize and evaluate information — indications of high-level thinking according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning

As well as building skills to help students reach a high level of thinking, inquiry-based learning can deliver other benefits to students and teachers.

 

1. Reinforces Curriculum Content

Whereas some see inquiry-based learning as a departure from the curriculum, you can use it to reinforce relevant content and improve understanding of core concepts.

This is due to curiosity’s effect on the brain. When a concept sparks curiosity, there is increased activity in the hippocampus — the region of the brain responsible for memory creation.

When students show more curiosity than normal regarding a specific topic, satiate it by using their questions to introduce an inquiry activity in the coming days.

In doing so, they should effectively retain essential information gleaned during the exercise, according to a study from the Association for Psychological Science.

2. “Warms Up” the Brain for Learning

Running a brief inquiry activity to start class can help students absorb information throughout the day, according to the same study.

Specifically, it states that curiosity prepares the brain for learning — allowing students to become more proficient at understanding and remembering skills and concepts.

An easy way to inspire curiosity is by launching an inquiry activity as a surprise. Related to a recent topic students found especially interesting, begin a lesson by playing a video or sharing a primary source document. Then, give students an open question to answer either individually or as a group.

This will help start class in a curiosity-sparking, intellectually-stimulating way.

3. Promotes a Deeper Understanding of Content

By delving into a concept through inquiry, students should see it as more than a simple rule, idea or formula.

Many of them will understand:

· How the idea was developed

· Why the rule or formula works

· When they can properly apply the rule, idea or formula

This is because the process of asking open questions, solving them through original strategies, empowers students to take ownership of their learning. Barring hiccups, they should be able to build understanding of a concept through their own methods and thinking styles. The same principle applies to experiential learning, which puts students at the centre of the learning experience. 

They will not have to follow a process they cannot grasp, possibly arriving at a seemingly-unjustified conclusion.

4. Helps Make Learning Rewarding

Inquiry can help students see the intrinsic rewards of learning, says an oft-cited article from the Harvard Educational Review.

The author states that many kids learn in an attempt to earn “the rewards of parental or teacher approval or the avoidance of failure.” As a result, they may not appreciate the inherent benefits of learning.

He hypothesized that inquiry-based learning instils a different mindset.

It shows students how fulfilling the act of discovery is, and that theorizing a new strategy or original conclusion is a reward. Because of this, they grow to enjoy the learning process itself — not parent or teacher approval.

This means that student appreciation for learning can improve with a simple inquiry exercise.

5. Builds Initiative and Self-Direction

Students can improve certain transferable skills through inquiry-based learning, many of which relate to initiative and self-direction.

This is evident when examining the steps of the inquiry process. Students learn how to ask questions, investigate, discuss, collaborate, cooperate and reach their own conclusions. Although they can separately build these skills through other activities, self-guided inquiry and analysis synthesizes this development.

6. Works in Almost Any Classroom

Inquiry-based learning can also benefit teachers, as you can repurpose activities for almost any classroom. Even regardless of grade and individual skill levels.

This is because you can:

· Adapt the pace and content to suit the needs of students

· Appeal to students who struggle to grasp content through traditional lessons

· Deliver exercises that greatly differ, using distinct content and investigation methods

· Use an inquiry exercise as either a “minds-on” activity, review, full lesson or standalone project

· Reinforce and expand upon any relevant concept, as long as students have shown curiosity towards it

In these ways, you will have the flexibility to provide inquiry exercises to the majority of your classes year after year.

7. Offers Differentiated Instruction

Running an inquiry-based learning activity will give you a chance to use differentiated instructional strategies, appealing to the diverse learning styles of your students.

Students can work by themselves, or as part of a small or large group. Inquiry itself typically involves methods such as discussion and guided research. You can also provide content in the form of text, audio, video and virtual or physical manipulative such as building blocks.

Delivering a range of content and ways to process it, inquiry activities can allow you to meet your students’ distinct learning needs and preferences.

Are you a school or district education administrator who wants to learn more about Prodigy? School leaders can use Prodigy to:

· Gauge student preparation for standardized testing

· Inform teacher instruction to drive student achievement

· Pinpoint students’ working grade levels and their levels on key strands

What is Self-Awareness?
The first main skill associated with Social Emotional Learning is self-awareness. According to the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), self-awareness is the ability to accurately recognize one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values, and how they influence behaviour. It is the ability to accurately assess one’s strengths and limitations, with a well-grounded sense of confidence, optimism, and a “growth mindset.” In short, self-awareness is the ability to understand one’s self.

Although definitions vary, self-awareness is generally seen as an inwardly focused evaluative process in which individuals use reflection to make self-comparisons to reality and the feedback of others. The goal of the self-awareness process is to create better self-knowledge, make adjustments and improvements, and accommodate for weaknesses. The self-awareness process brings into question one’s identity by allowing one to compare themselves to others and their feedback in a new way. This form of comparison is seen as allowing evaluation of alternatives, identification of problems and progress towards goals. Sharon Merriman of the University of Georgia, Athens, has described the self-aware adult learner as one who;

· has an independent self-concept;

· can direct their own learning;

· has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that can be a resource;

· has learning needs closely related to changing social roles;

· is problem-centred and interested in immediate application of knowledge; and

· is internally motivated, rather than externally, to learn.

 

What Skills are Associated with Self-Awareness?
In order to be self-aware, one must be able to do the following:

· Identify emotions – It is important that students be able to recognize and identify emotions. In order to be aware of their own emotions and participate in activities that address those emotions, they must first be able to label them.

· Have an accurate self-perception – Because self-awareness is based on an awareness of the “self,” it is necessary for one’s perception of self to match reality. In order to have accurate self-awareness, it is important for students to be reflective and open to feedback in order to develop a true sense of self. A realistic understanding of themselves will allow students to better manage their behaviour.

· Recognize strengths – We each have unique strengths, and it is vital that we each recognize and build on them. An important piece of social emotional health is a focus on positive attributes.

· Possess self-confidence – When students are able to recognize their strengths, their self-confidence grows. Again, self-confidence is an integral piece of a healthy social emotional state.

· Demonstrate self-efficacy – Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in their ability to achieve a goal. Recent research suggests that by believing you are capable of something, you help yourself on the path to achieving it.

When to Teach Self-Awareness
Psychologist Daniel Goleman suggests that self-awareness is crucial for all levels of success. Therefore, this should be the leading skill in Social Emotional Learning. Before even beginning implementation with students, it is also important to ensure that the adults working with these students have an accurate self-perception of themselves so as to better build these skills with students. When implementation begins with our own self-awareness, we can begin to help students recognize breakdowns in their social emotional skills. This strategy allows educators to better match relevant skill-building activities and strategies with student’s current abilities.

How This Connect Does to Landmark’s Teaching Principle?
By encouraging students to develop an awareness of themselves, educators include the students in the learning process, which is Landmark’s sixth Teaching Principle. This self-awareness allows for teachers and students to engage in dialogue about student strengths and areas for improvement, as well as plans for instruction and implementation of strategies. In order for students to improve their self-awareness, it is crucial that they are included in that process. For the full text of Landmark Teaching Principle, this is “Include Student in the Learning Process.

 

 

 

How Self-Awareness Develops

Self-awareness does not develop all at once. It happens over time. The process begins when kids start being able to recognize and name their emotions, strengths and challenges, and likes and dislikes.

There are two kinds of self-awareness.

· Private self-awareness is when kids are aware of something about themselves that other people might not be. For example, some kids get butterflies in their stomach before reading in front of the class. Knowing that means they’re nervous is private self-awareness. It’s not something other people notice or know about them.

· Public self-awareness is when kids are aware of how other people see them. This type of self-awareness develops later. That’s because kids need to understand that other people have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from theirs. And until about age 5, most kids do not realize that other people are not always thinking and feeling the same way as them. (This is known as theory of mind.)

Some kids have a harder time learning theory of mind, especially kids who have trouble reading social cues. It’s not that they do not care about other people’s feelings. Instead, they may not notice or understand other people’s feelings.

Imagine a child who stands very close to other kids when talking. Public self-awareness would be noticing the other kids’ discomfort, realizing what’s causing it, and taking a step back. But not noticing and continuing to stand close does not mean the child is being disrespectful on purpose. It could be that the child missed the social cue. Or that the child needs extra help learning to recognize other people’s responses and feelings.

Private and public self-awareness work together. They help kids understand that what they are thinking and feeling—how they are “seeing” themselves—might not always be the way other people see them.

 

The Importance of Strong Self-Awareness

When kids understand themselves better, it’s easier for them to build positive self-esteem. That’s important for kids who struggle in school or with friendships. It gives them a way to look not just at their challenges, but also to see what they’re good at. Knowing more about how they think and how they come across gives kids a better sense of when to speak up for what they need, or self-advocate.

Kids who are self-aware do a better job at self-monitoring, too. That means they’re able to keep track of what they’re doing (with schoolwork or socially) and figure out what’s working and what’s not working. Self-awareness also leads to self-reflection—thinking over things that happened to find ways to make things work better next time.

When kids have strong self-awareness skills, they also:

· Recognize their strengths and challenges

· Can figure out what they need to do to complete a task

· Notice mistakes in schoolwork and make edits or changes

· Can understand and talk about feelings

· Recognize other people’s needs and feelings

· See how their behaviour affects others

· Have a growth mindset

· Are resilient and willing to learn from their mistakes

How to Help Your Child Gain Self-Awareness

Helping kids build self-awareness can start in small ways, like having open conversations about school and talking about their strengths and challenges. You can also download a self-awareness worksheet for your child.

If your child struggles to understand other people’s feelings and social cues, learn ways to begin teaching empathy. You can also download growth mindset activities to help your child learn how to go from “I can’t do it” to “I can’t do it yet.”

Strategies for Self-Awareness

One of the best ways teachers can promote self-awareness in the classroom is by helping each student set weekly individual goals. Debbie Malone of Edgenuity says that at the end of each week, teachers can give students time to reflect on why they did or didn’t meet these goals. This encourages students to think deeply about their own behaviours and abilities.

Another strategy for teaching self-awareness comes from Bentley School in California. Here, students at each grade level take part in self-awareness activities specifically designed to help them reflect on their own learning and possibly anchor their interest in a subject.

For example, first graders are asked to reflect on their experience with a puzzle by thinking cognitively about shapes and problems. Older students are taught to ask questions they don’t know the answer to in order to help them form hypotheses.

Meditation is another helpful self-reflection strategy that students can practice. School Climate Solutions explains that meditation can help students disconnect from negative thought patterns. Once realizing that their negative thoughts don’t control them, meditation allows students to achieve stronger self-awareness and more control over their thoughts.  

Child Development Theories

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth and learning. But why do we study development? What can we learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behaviour, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

 

How Our Understanding of Child Development Has Changed Over the Years

Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of human history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that occur during childhood and adolescence.

Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th century, but it tended to focus on abnormal behaviour. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in other topics including typical child development as well as the influences on development.

How Studying Child Development Allows Us to Understand Changes That Take Place

Why is it important to study how children grow, learn and change? An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

Some of the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development such as cognitive or social growth.

 

Major Child Development Theories

The following are just a few of the many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and researchers. More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur.

Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced behaviour.

According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on personality and behaviour.

Freud proposed one of the best-known grand theories of child development. According to Freud’s psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. During each stage, the child encounters conflicts that play a significant role in the course of development.

His theory suggested that the energy of the libido was focused on different erogenous zones at specific stages. Failure to progress through a stage can result in a fixation at that point in development, which Freud believed could have an influence on adult behaviour.

So what happens as children complete each stage? And what might result if a child does poorly during a particular point in development? Successfully completing each stage leads to the development of a healthy adult personality. Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in fixations that can then have an influence on adult behaviour.

While some other child development theories suggest that personality continues to change and grow over the entire lifetime, Freud believed that it was early experiences that played the greatest role in shaping development. According to Freud, personality is largely set in stone by the age of five to mark Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half of the twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went on to expand upon Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these neo-Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best known.

Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development describes growth and change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that arise during different stages of development.

While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development shared some similarities with Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather than focusing on sexual interest as a driving force in development, Erikson believed that social interaction and experience played decisive roles.

His eight-stage theory of human development described this process from infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a developmental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth.

Unlike many other developmental theories, Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory focuses on development across the entire lifespan. At each stage, children and adults face a developmental crisis that serves as a major turning point. Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads to the emergence of a lifelong psychological virtue marking Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development.

 

Behavioural Child Development Theories

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviourism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviourists believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable behaviours in order to become a more scientific discipline.

According to the behavioural perspective, all human behaviour can be described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviourists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement.

Behavioural theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behaviour and are based on the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviours. Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.

This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are.

Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are that classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to modify behaviours.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world. Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults.

Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of cognitive development. His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.

· The Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviours are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

· The Preoperational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information and are unable to take the point of view of other people.

· The Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

· The Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.³

Bowlby's attachment theory suggested that children are born with an innate need to form attachments. Such attachments aid in survival by ensuring that the child receives care and protection. Not only that, but these attachments are characterized by clear behavioural and motivational patterns. In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviours designed to ensure proximity. Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers who in turn provide a safe haven and a secure base for exploration.

Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have suggested that a number of different attachment styles exist. Children who receive consistent support and care are more likely to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive less reliable care may develop an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style also known as the attachment Theory.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning. For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned behaviours that have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or operant conditioning?

According to social learning theory, behaviours can also be learned through observation and modelling. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.

Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a live model. Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about how to perform a behaviour as well as through observing either real or fictional characters display behaviours in books or films. This is also known as Social Learning Theory.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher order functions.

In Vygotsky's view, learning is an inherently social process. Through interacting with others, learning becomes integrated into an individual's understanding of the world. This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development, which is the gap between what a person can do with help and what they can do on their own. It is with the help of more knowledgeable others that people are able to progressively learn and increase their skills and scope of understanding.

SIX LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY TEACHER

1) INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY

Today’s youngsters were born in the age of the Internet. Many are more technologically savvy than the adults assigned the task of teaching them. To connect with these kids, teachers must learn to speak their language and become conversant with the technology that comes so naturally to the young. Integrating technology means tapping into students’ interests and strengthening their technical skills, all while providing enriching learning opportunities. As with any new development, many teachers, eager to keep up with the latest fashion, simply go through the motions of integrating technology. However, if they are to succeed with it, they need more than the motions – they need a deep understanding of the tools available, as well as meaningful reflection about how to use them to enhance learning. In addition, the increased connectivity that accompanies this technology makes it vital that teachers stress the importance of Internet safety. NetSmartzKids, an interactive website of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, teaches kids to use the Internet responsibly. Also, be sure to check out ECE Technology: 10 Trending Tools for Teachers, which outlines many innovative tools that can enhance student learning.

2) COOPERATIVE LEARNING STRUCTURES

Teacher-centred instruction has had its day. Effective teachers are increasingly using a student-centred approach. Cooperative learning sparks engagement in classrooms by encouraging interaction among the students themselves. The teacher, rather than calling on one student at a time, allows children to discuss class materials with buddies or in groups, thus maximizing the level of participation. The students work just as hard as the teachers. No longer has a one-man show, the teacher’s role become that of a facilitator instead. This, in turn, leads to higher achievement, while promoting both team and class building. Kagan Cooperative Learning has developed over 200 practical, easy-to-implement instructional strategies, or “structures,” that turn classrooms into lively scenes of both movement and stimulating discussion. Laura Candler’s Cooperative Learning Resources features a variety of activity sheets and blackline masters for teachers, useful for accountability during cooperative learning.

3) DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION

Teachers can tailor learning experiences to differentiate among the individual needs of students in the classroom. There are three main learning styles: visual, auditory and kinesthetic. Cognitive Learning Styles of Children describes the characteristics of these learners as well as the types of activities in which they best thrive, with the caveat that it is only learning styles being described, to be distinguished from cognitive styles (holistic, analytic, field-dependent, etc.). Teachers can also differentiate by matching assignments to readiness levels, offering appropriate intervention or extension activities as required. Allowing children to select activities based on areas of interest is another great way to differentiate. Offering choices is an excellent motivator for kids. Small-group work is one of the most effective ways to meet the needs of diverse learners in large class settings. Differentiation Central offers insightful information, as well as a short video of educator, author and speaker Carol Ann Tomlinson sharing her experiences and views about classroom differentiation.

4) GOAL SETTING

Involving children in the goal-setting process is an excellent way to encourage them to take ownership of their learning. In the early stages, goal setting needs to be done in a very clear and simplistic way – for example, frequent two-way conversations with children about their progress in specific areas. Teachers can further facilitate goal setting through the use of organizers, anchor charts and similar aids. Free Printable Behaviour Charts provides models of personal charts for early learners. Teaching and Tapas shares a class’s goal charts geared specifically towards reading and writing. K-5 Math Teaching Resources shows a selection of goal charts for math instruction. In general, helping children reach their goals calls for teachers to provide specific, frequent feedback as well as ample time for self-reflection.

5) CROSS - CURRICULUM TEACHING

In contrast to the traditional teaching of subjects in isolation, teaching multiple subjects simultaneously can help students go much deeper in learning concepts and skills. Naturally, this approach asks more from the teacher. It can be easy to blend math, science, or social studies content with reading or writing. However, it is more challenging to combine all the subjects at once. Here are some of the major approaches to simultaneous learning. Project-based learning involves children carrying out a project that ends up with a concrete result of some kind. Problem-based learning asks the teacher to guide children in developing solutions to real-world problems. In inquiry-based learning, children generate their own questions according to their curiosities or interests, which they then investigate. These methods work so well because teachers don’t simply tell students what they should know, but instead they engage children in exploring and uncovering the information in a more meaningful way in which all the subjects come into play together. Check out this video of a group of five-year-olds participating in project-based learning at Auburn Early Education Centre. These methods are not only fun, they are highly motivating for children and encourage collaboration, as well.

6) ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

Assessment for Learning, or Formative Assessment, is a data-gathering process used by teachers to help them customize instruction to match students’ needs. Summative assessments don’t always give a clear picture of what a student knows. Also, by the time the data is gathered, it’s already too late! The teacher is already moving to the next objective, leaving many students behind who haven’t fully grasped the previous content yet. To prevent this problem, teachers can monitor how the children are learning as they teach, using observations, questioning strategies, class discussions, exit tickets, learning logs, peer assessments, self-assessments, and slate work, among other methods. Teachers can gauge the progress of individuals, groups, or the whole class, and they can adjust the process by supporting or challenging students as needed. The article what is Assessment for Learning? Provide additional insight into this technique. These ongoing assessments allow teachers to keep their fingers on the pulse of the classroom to ensure that students are learning.

 

 

UNIT EIGHT

THE BASIC SCHOOL SCIENCE CURRICULUM

 

RATIONALE FOR PRIMARY SCIENCE

Science forms an integral part of our everyday activities and it is a universal truth that development is hinged on Science. Science and Technology is the backbone of social, economic, political, and physical development of a country. It is a never-ending creative process, which serves to promote discovery and understanding. It consists of a body of knowledge which attempts to explain and interpret phenomena and experiences. Science has changed our lives and it is vital to Ghana’s future development.

 

To provide quality Science education, teachers must facilitate learning in the Science classroom. This will provide the foundations for discovering and understanding the world around us and lay the grounds for Science and Science related studies at higher levels of education. Learners should be encouraged to understand how Science can be used to explain what is occurring, predict how things will behave and analyse causes and origins of things in our environment. The Science curriculum has considered the desired outcomes of education for learners at the basic level. Science is also concerned with the development of attitudes and therefore it is important for all citizens to be scientifically and technologically literate for sustainable development. Science therefore ought to be taught using hands-on and minds-on approaches which learners will find as fun and adopt Science as a culture.

 

PHILOSOPHY

Teaching Philosophy

Ghana believes that an effective Science education which is needed for sustainable development should be inquiry-based. Thus Science education must provide learners with opportunities to expand, change, enhance and modify the ways in which they view the world. It should be pivoted on learner-centred teaching and learning approaches that engage learners physically and cognitively in the knowledge-acquiring process, in a rich and rigorous inquiry-driven environment.

 

 

Learning Philosophy

Science Learning is an active contextualized process of constructing knowledge based on learners’ experiences rather than acquiring it. Learners are information constructors who operate as researchers. Teachers serve as facilitators by providing the enabling environment that promotes the construction of learners’ own knowledge based on their previous experiences. This makes learning more relevant to the learner and leads to the development of critical thinkers and problem solvers.

GENERAL AIMS

The curriculum is aimed at developing individuals to become scientifically literate, good problem solvers, have the ability to think creatively and have both the confidence and competence to participate fully in matters of the Ghanaian society as responsible local and global citizens.

 

SPECIFIC AIMS

The Science curriculum is designed to help learners to:

1. Develop a sense of curiosity, creativity, innovation and critical thinking for investigating and understanding their environment.

2. Develop skills, habits and attitudes necessary for scientific inquiry.

3. Communicate scientific ideas effectively.

4. Use scientific concepts in explaining their own lives and the world around them.

5. Live a healthy and quality life.

6. Develop humane and responsible attitude towards the use of all resources of Ghana and elsewhere.

7. Show concern and understanding of the interdependence of all living things and the Earth on which they live.

8. Design activities for exploring and applying scientific ideas and concepts.

9. Develop skills for using technology to enhance learning.

10. Use materials in their environment in a sustainable manner.

 

 

 

INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDELINES

1. Guide and facilitate learning by generating discourse among learners and challenging them to accept and share responsibility for their own learning based on their unique individual differences.

2. Select Science content, adapt and plan lessons to meet the interests, knowledge, understanding, abilities, and experiences of learners.

3. Work together as colleagues within and across disciplines and grade levels to develop communities of Science learners who exhibit the skills of scientific inquiry and the attitudes and social values conducive to Science learning.

4. Use multiple methods and systematically gather data about learners’ understanding and ability, to guide Science teaching and learning with arrangements to provide feedback to both learners and parents.

5. Design and manage learning environments that provide students with the time, space, and resources needed for learning Science.

 

CORE COMPETENCIES

The core competencies describe a body of skills that teachers at all levels should seek to develop in their learners. They are ways in which teachers and learners engage with the subject matter as they learn the subject. The competencies presented here describe a connected body of core skills that are acquired throughout the processes of teaching and learning;

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving (CP)

This skill develops learners’ cognitive and reasoning abilities to enable them analyse and solve problems. Critical thinking and problem solving skill enables learners to draw on their own experiences to analyse situations and choose the most appropriate out of a number of possible solutions. It requires that learners embrace the problem at hand, persevere and take responsibility for their own learning.

Creativity and Innovation (CI)

Creativity and Innovation promotes the development of entrepreneurial skills in learners through their ability to think of new ways of solving problems and developing technologies for addressing the problem at hand. It requires ingenuity of ideas, arts, technology and enterprise. Learners having this skill are also able to think independently and creatively.

Communication and Collaboration (CC)

This competence promotes in learners the skills to make use of languages, symbols and texts to exchange information about themselves and their life experiences. Learners actively participate in sharing their ideas. They engage in dialogue with others by listening to and learning from them. They also respect and value the views of others.

Cultural Identity and Global Citizenship (CG)

This competence involves developing learners to put country and service foremost through an understanding of what it means to be active citizens. This is done by inculcating in learners a strong sense of social and economic awareness. Learners make use of the knowledge, skills, competences and attitudes acquired to contribute effectively towards the socioeconomic development of the country and on the global stage. Learners build skills to critically identify and analyse cultural and global trends that enable them to contribute to the global community.

Personal Development and Leadership (PL)

This competence involves improving self-awareness and building self-esteem. It also entails identifying and developing talents, fulfilling dreams and aspirations. Learners are able to learn from mistakes and failures of the past. They acquire skills to develop other people to meet their needs. It involves recognising the importance of values such as honesty and empathy and seeking the well-being of others. Personal development and leadership enables learners to distinguish between right and wrong. The skill helps them to foster perseverance, resilience and self-confidence. PL helps them acquire the skill of leadership, self-regulation and responsibility necessary for lifelong learning.

Digital Literacy (DL)

Digital Literacy develops learners to discover, acquire knowledge, and communicate through ICT to support their learning. It also makes them use digital media responsibly.

LEARNING DOMAINS (EXPECTED LEARNING BEHAVIOURS)

A central aspect of this curriculum is the concept of three integral learning domains that should be the basis for instruction and assessment. These are

- Knowledge, Understanding and Application

- Process Skills

- Attitudes and Values

 

KNOWLEDGE, UNDERSTANDING AND APPLICATION

Under this domain, learners acquire knowledge through some learning experiences. They may also show understanding of concepts by comparing, summarising, re-writing etc. in their own words and constructing meaning from instruction. The learner may also apply the knowledge acquired in some new contexts. At a higher level of learning behaviour, the learner may be required to analyse an issue or a problem. At a much more higher level, the learner may be required to synthesize knowledge by integrating a number of ideas to formulate a plan, solve a problem, compose a story, or a piece of music. Further, the learners may be required to evaluate, estimate and interpret a concept. At the last level, which is the highest, learners may be required to create, invent, compose, design and construct. These learning behaviours “knowing ”, “understanding”, “applying”, “analysing”, “synthesising”, “evaluating” and “creating” fall under the domain “Knowledge, Understanding and Application”.

In this curriculum, learning indicators are stated with action words to show what the learner should know and be able to do. For example, the learner will be able to describe something. Being able to “describe” something after teaching and learning has been completed means that the learner has acquired “knowledge”. Being able to explain, summarise, and give examples etc. means that the learner has understood the concept taught.

Similarly, being able to develop, defend, etc. means that the learner can “apply” the knowledge acquired in some new context. You will notice that each of the indicators in the curriculum contains an “action word” that describes the behaviour the learner will be able to demonstrate after teaching and learning has taken place. “Knowledge, Understanding and Application” is a domain that should be the prime focus of teaching and learning in schools. Teaching in most cases tends to stress on knowledge acquisition to the detriment of other higher level behaviours such as knowledge application.

Each action word in any indicator outlines the underlying outcome expected. Each indicator must be read carefully to know the learning domain towards which you have to teach. The focus is to move teaching and learning from the didactic acquisition of “knowledge” where there is fact memorisation, heavy reliance on formulae, remembering facts without critiquing them or relating them to real world – surface learning – to a new position called deep learning. Learners are expected to deepen their learning by knowledge application to develop critical thinking skills and to generate creative ideas to solve real life problems in their school lives and later in their adult lives. This is where learning becomes beneficial to the learner.

The explanation and the key words involved in the “Knowledge, Understanding and Application” domain are as follows:

Knowing:

The ability to remember, recall, identify, define, describe, list, name, match, state principles, facts and concepts. Knowledge is the ability to remember or recall concepts already learnt and this constitutes the lowest level of learning.

Understanding:

The ability to explain, summarise, translate, rewrite, paraphrase, give examples, generalise, estimate or predict consequences based upon a trend. Understanding is generally the ability to grasp the meaning of some concepts that may be verbal, pictorial, or symbolic.

Applying:

This dimension is also referred to as “Use of Knowledge”. Ability to use knowledge or apply knowledge, apply rules, methods, principles, theories, etc. to situations that are new and unfamiliar. It also involves the ability to produce, solve, plan, demonstrate, discover etc.

Analysing:

The ability to break down concept/information into its component parts; to differentiate, compare, distinguish, outline, separate, identify significant points etc., ability to recognise unstated assumptions and logical fallacies; ability to recognise inferences from facts etc.

Synthesising:

The ability to put parts or ideas together to form a new whole. It involves the ability to combine, compile, compose, devise, plan, revise, organise, create, generate new ideas and solutions.

Evaluating:

The ability to appraise, compare features of different things and make comments or judgment, contrast, criticise, justify, support, discuss, conclude, make recommendations etc. Evaluation refers to the ability to judge the worth or value of some concepts based on some criteria.

Creating:

The ability to use information or materials to plan, compose, produce, manufacture or construct other products.

From the foregoing, creating is the highest form of thinking and learning and is therefore a very important behaviour. This unfortunately, is the area where most learners perform poorly. In order to get learners to develop critical thinking pointed out. Skills beginning right from the lower primary level, it is advised that you do your best to help your learners to develop analytic skills as already.

SKILLS AND PROCESSES

These are specific activities or tasks that indicate performance or proficiency in the learning of Science. They are useful benchmarks for planning lessons, developing exemplars and are the core of inquiry-based learning.

Equipment and apparatus handling

This is the skill of knowing the functions and limitations of various apparatus, and developing the ability to select and handle them appropriately for various tasks.

Observing

This is the skill of using the senses to gather information about objects or events. This also includes the use of instruments to extend the range of our senses.

Classifying

This is the skill of grouping objects or events based on common characteristics.

Comparing

This is the skill of identifying the similarities and differences between two or more objects, concepts or processes.

Communicating/Reporting

This is the skill of transmitting, receiving and presenting information in concise, clear and accurate forms - verbal, written, pictorial, tabular or graphical.

Predicting

This is the skill of assessing the likelihood of an outcome based on prior knowledge of how things usually turn out.

Analysing

This is the skill of identifying the parts of objects, information or processes, and the patterns and relationships between these parts.

 

 

Generating possibilities

This is the skill of exploring all the options, possibilities and alternatives beyond the obvious or preferred one.

Evaluating

This is the skill of assessing the reasonableness, accuracy and quality of information, processes or ideas. This is also the skill of assessing the quality and feasibility of objects.

Designing

This is the skill of Visualizing and drawing new objects or gargets from imagination.

Measuring

This is the skill of using measuring instruments and equipment for measuring, reading and making observations.

Interpreting

This is the skill of evaluating data in terms of its worth: good, bad, reliable, unreliable; making inferences and predictions from written or graphical data; extrapolating and deriving conclusions. Interpretation is also referred to as “Information Handling”.

Recording

This is the skill of drawing or making graphical representation boldly and clearly, well labelled and pertinent to the issue at hand.

Generalising

This is the skill of being able to use the conclusions arrived at in an experiment to what could happen in similar situations.

Designing of Experiments

This is the skill of developing hypotheses; planning and designing of experiments; persistence in the execution of experimental activities; modification of experimental activities where necessary in order to reach conclusions.

Attitudes and Values

To be effective, competent and reflective citizens, willing and capable of solving personal and societal problems, learners should be exposed to situations that challenge them to raise questions and attempt to solve problems. Learners, therefore need to acquire positive attitudes, values and psychosocial skills that will enable them participate in debates, and take a stand on issues affecting them and others.

Attitudes

i. Curiosity

 

The inclination or feeling toward seeking information about how things work in a variety of fields.

ii. Perseverance

 

The ability to pursue a problem until a satisfying solution is found.

iii. Flexibility in ideas

 

Willingness to change opinion in the face of more plausible evidence.

iv. Respect for Evidence

 

Willingness to collect and use data in one’s investigation, and also have respect for data collected by others.

v. Reflection

 

The habit of critically reviewing ways in which an investigation has been carried out to see possible faults and other ways by which the investigation could be improved upon.

The teacher should endeavour to ensure that learners cultivate the above scientific attitudes and process skills as a prelude to effective work in Science.

Values

At the heart of this curriculum is the belief in nurturing honest, creative and responsible citizens. As such, every part of this curriculum, including the related pedagogy, should be consistent with the following set of values.

i. Respect: This includes respect for the nation of Ghana, its institutions and laws and the culture and respect among its citizens and friends of Ghana.

 

ii. Diversity: Ghana is a multicultural society in which every citizen enjoys fundamental rights and responsibilities. Learners must be taught to respect the views of all persons and to see national diversity as a powerful force for national development. The curriculum promotes social cohesion.

 

iii. Equity: Socio-economic development across the country is uneven. Consequently, it is necessary to ensure an equitable distribution of resources based on the unique needs of learners and schools. Ghana’s learners are from diverse backgrounds, and thus which require the provision of equal opportunities to all, and that, all strive to care for each other.

 

iv. Commitment to achieving excellence: Learners must be taught to appreciate the opportunities provided through the curriculum and persist in doing their best in their fields of endeavour as global citizens. The curriculum encourages innovativeness through creative and critical thinking and the use of contemporary technology.

 

v. Teamwork/Collaboration: Learners are encouraged to become committed to team-oriented working and learning environments. This also means that learners should have an attitude of tolerance to be able to live peacefully with all persons.

 

vi. Truth and Integrity: The curriculum aims to develop learners into individuals who will consistently tell the truth irrespective of the consequences, and be morally upright with an attitude of doing the right thing even when no one is watching Learners are taught. Also, be true to themselves and be willing to live the values of honesty and compassion. Equally important, is the practice of positive values as part of the ethos or culture of the work place, which includes integrity and perseverance. These underpin the competencies learning processes to allow learners to apply skills and competencies in the world of work.

The action words provided in the learning domains in each content standard should help you to structure your teaching to achieve the desired learning outcomes. Select from the words provided for your teaching, for evaluation exercises and for test construction. Check the learning indicators to ensure that you have given the required emphasis to each of the learning domains in your teaching and assessment.

 

 

ASSESSMENT

Assessment is a process of collecting and evaluating information about learners and using the information to make decisions to improve their learning.

In this curriculum, it is suggested that assessment is used to promote learning. Its purpose is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of learners to enable teachers ascertain their learner’s response to instruction. Assessment is both formative and summative. Formative assessment is viewed in terms of Assessment as learning and Assessment for learning.

Assessment as learning: Assessment as learning relates to engaging learners to reflect on the expectations of their learning. Information that learners provide the teacher forms the basis for refining teaching-learning strategies. Learners are assisted to play their roles and to take responsibility of their own learning to improve performance. Learners are assisted to set their own goals and monitor their progress.

Assessment for learning: It is an approach used to monitor learner’s progress and achievement. This occurs throughout the learning process. The teacher employs assessment for learning to seek and interpret evidence which serves as timely feedback to refine their teaching strategies and improve learners’ performance. Learners become actively involved in the learning process and gain confidence in what they are expected to learn.

Assessment of learning: This is summative assessment. It describes the level learners have attained in the learning and what they know and can do over a period of time. The emphasis is to evaluate the learner’s cumulative progress and achievement.

It must be emphasised that all forms of assessment should be based on the domains of learning. In developing assessment procedures, try to select indicators in such a way that you will be able to assess a representative sample from a given strand. Each indicator in the curriculum is considered a criterion to be achieved by the learners. When you develop assessment items or questions that are based on a representative sample of the indicators taught, the assessment is referred to as a “Criterion-Referenced Assessment”. In many cases, a teacher cannot assess all the indicators taught in a term or year. The assessment procedure you use i.e. class assessments, homework, projects etc. must be developed in such a way that the various procedures complement one another to provide a representative sample of indicators taught over a period.

 

 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOCATION

A total of four periods a week, each period consisting of thirty minutes, is allocated to the teaching of Science at the lower basic level (B1- B2). It is recommended that the teaching periods be divided as follows:

Theory: 2 periods per week (30 minutes per period)

Practical: 2 periods per week (one double-period)

PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES

These include the approaches, methods and strategies for ensuring that every learner benefits from appropriate and relevant teaching and learning episodes which are timely assessed, and feedback provided to the learner and other stakeholders such as parents and education authorities. It includes the type and use of appropriate and relevant teaching and learning resources to ensure that all learners attain the expected level of learning outcomes.

The curriculum emphasises:

• The creation of learning-centred classrooms through the use of creative approaches to teaching and learning as strategies to ensuring learner empowerment and independent learning.

• The positioning of inclusion and equity at the centre of quality teaching and learning.

• The use of differentiation and scaffolding as teaching and learning strategies for ensuring that no learner is left behind.

• The use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as a pedagogical tool.

• The identification of subject specific instructional expectations needed for making learning in the subject relevant to learners.

• The integration of assessment for learning, as learning and of learning into the teaching and learning process and as an accountability strategy.

• Using questioning techniques that promote deeper learning

LEARNING-CENTRED PEDAGOGY

The learner is at the centre of learning. At the heart of the curriculum is an emphasis on learning progression and improvement of learning outcomes for Ghana’s young people with a focus on the 4Rs – Reading, wRiting, aRithmetic and cReativity. It is expected that at each curriculum phase, learners would be offered the essential learning experiences to progress seamlessly to the next phase. Where there are indications that a learner is not sufficiently ready for the next phase a compensatory provision through differentiation should be provided to ensure that such a learner is ready to progress with his/her cohort.

At the primary school, the progression phases are: pre-primary (KG1 – 2), primary phases (B1 – B3 and B4 to B6).

The curriculum encourages the creation of a learning-centred classroom with the opportunity for learners to engage in meaningful “hands-on” activities that bring home to the learner what they are learning in school and what they know from outside of school. The learning-centred classroom is a place for the learners to discuss ideas and through the inspiration of the teacher, actively engage in looking for answers through working in groups to solve problems. This also includes researching information and analysing and evaluating the information obtained. The aim of the learning-centred classroom approach is to develop learner autonomy so that learners can take ownership of their learning. It provides the opportunity for deep and profound learning to take place.

The teacher should create a learning atmosphere that ensures:

• Learners feel safe and accepted.

• Learners are given frequent opportunities to interact with varied sources of information, teaching and learning materials and ideas in a variety of ways.

• The teacher assumes the position of a facilitator or coach who: Helps learners to identify a problem suitable for investigation via project work.

• Problems are connected to the context of the learners’ world so that it presents authentic opportunities for learning.

• Subject matter around the problem, not the discipline.

• Learners responsibly define their learning experience and draw up a plan to solve the problem in question.

• Learners collaborate whilst learning.

• Learners demonstrate the results of their learning through a product or performance.

 

It is more productive for learners to find answers to their own questions rather than for teachers to provide the answers and their opinions in a learning-centred classroom.

 

 

INCLUSION

Inclusion entails access and learning for all learners, especially, those disadvantaged. All learners are entitled to a broad and balanced curriculum in every school in Ghana. The daily learning activities to which learners are exposed should ensure that the learners’ right to equal access to quality education is being met. The curriculum suggests a variety of approaches that address learners’ diversity and their special needs in the learning process. These approaches when used in lessons, will contribute to the full development of the learning potential of every learner. Learners have individual needs and different learning styles, learning experiences and different levels of motivation for learning. Planning, delivery and reflection on daily learning episodes should take these differences into consideration. The curriculum therefore promotes:

• learning that is linked to the learner’s background and to their prior experiences, interests, potential and capacities;

• learning that is meaningful because it aligns with learners’ ability (e.g. learning that is oriented towards developing general capabilities and solving the practical problems of everyday life); and

• the active involvement of the learners in the selection and organisation of learning experiences, making them aware of their importance in the process and also enabling them to assess their own learning outcomes.

 

DIFFERENTIATION AND SCAFFOLDING

This curriculum is to be delivered through the use of creative approaches. Differentiation and Scaffolding are pedagogical approaches to be used within the context of the creative approaches.

Differentiation is a process by which differences among learners (learning styles, interest and readiness to learn etc.) are accommodated so that all learners in a group have their best chance of learning. Differentiation could be by task, support and/or outcome. Differentiation, as a way of ensuring each learner benefits adequately from the delivery of the curriculum, can be achieved in the classroom through:

• Task

• One-on-one support

• Outcome

 

Differentiation by task involves teachers setting different tasks for learners of different ability e.g. in sketching the plan and shape of their classroom some leaners could be made to sketch with free hand while others would be made to trace the outline of the plan of the classroom.

Differentiation by support involves the teacher providing a targeted support to learners who are seen as performing below expected standards or at risk of not reaching the expected level of learning outcome. This support may include a referral to a Guidance and Counselling Officer for academic support.

Differentiation by outcome involves the teacher allowing learners to respond at different levels. In this case, identified learners are allowed more time to complete a given task.

Scaffolding in education refers to the use of a variety of instructional techniques aimed at moving learners progressively towards stronger understanding and ultimately greater independence in the learning process.

It involves breaking up the learning episodes, experiences or concepts into smaller parts and then providing learners with the support they need to learn each part. The process may require a teacher assigning an excerpt of a longer text to learners to read, engage them to discuss the excerpt to improve comprehension of its rationale, then guiding them through the key words/vocabulary to ensure learners have developed a thorough understanding of the text before engaging them to read the full text.

Common scaffolding strategies available to the teacher include:

 

• giving learners a simplified version of a lesson, assignment, or reading, and then gradually increasing the complexity, difficulty, or sophistication over time;

• describing or illustrating a concept, problem, or process in multiple ways to ensure understanding;

• giving learners an exemplar or model of an assignment, they will be asked to complete;

• giving learners a vocabulary lesson before they read a difficult text;

• clearly describing the purpose of a learning activity, the directions learners need to follow, and the learning goals they are expected to achieve;

• explicitly describing how the new lesson builds on the knowledge and skills learners were taught in a previous lesson.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

ICT has been integrated into this curriculum as a teaching and learning tool to enhance deep and independent learning. Some of the expected outcomes that this curriculum aims to achieve through ICT use for teaching and learning are:

• improved teaching and learning processes.

• improved consistency and quality of teaching and learning.

• increased opportunities for more learner-centred pedagogical approaches.

• improved inclusive education practices by addressing inequalities in gender, language, ability.

• improved collaboration, creativity, higher order thinking skills.

• enhanced flexibility and differentiated approach of delivery.

 

The use of ICT as a teaching and learning tool helps to provide learners with access to large quantities of information online. It also provides the framework for analysing data to investigate patterns and relationships in a geographical context. Once learners have made their findings, ICT can then help them organise, edit and present information in many different ways.

Learners need to be exposed to the various ICT tools around them such as calculators, radios, cameras, phones, television sets and computers and related software like the Microsoft Office packages – Word, PowerPoint and Excel — as teaching and learning tools. The exposure that learners are given at the Basic level to use ICT in exploring learning will build their confidence and will increase their level of motivation to apply ICT use in later years, both within and outside of education. ICT use for teaching and learning is expected to enhance the quality and learners’ level of competence in the 4Rs.

 

ORGANISATION OF THE CURRICULUM

The curriculum has been structured into four columns which are Strands, Sub-strands, Content standards, Indicators and exemplars. A unique annotation is used for numbering the learning indicators in the curriculum for the purpose of easy referencing. The annotation is indicated in table below;

Example: B3 .2.4.1.2

 

                               

 

Strands are the broad areas/sections of the Science content to be studied.

Sub-strands are the topics within each strand under which the content is organised.

Content standard refers to the pre-determined level of knowledge, skill and/or attitude that a learner attains by a set stage of education.

Indicator is a clear outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year to meet the content standard expectation. The indicators represent the minimum expected standard in a year.

Exemplar: support and guidance which clearly explains the expected outcomes of an indicator and suggests what teaching and learning activities could take, to support the facilitators/teachers in the delivery of the curriculum.

 

 

ILLUSTRATION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Strand 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER Sub-Strand 1: Living and Non-Living Things
B1	B2	B3	B4
B1.1.1.1: Show understanding of the physical features and life processes of living things and use this understanding to classify them	B2.1.1.1: Show understanding of the physical features and life processes of living things and use this understanding to classify them	B3.1.1.1: Show understanding of the physical features and life processes of living things and use this understanding to classify them.	B4.1.1.1: Show understanding of the physical features and life processes of living things and use this understanding to classify them
B1.1.1.1.1: Observe and describe different kinds of things in the environment	B2.1.1.1.1: Describe the physical features of plants (roots, stem, leaves	B3.1.1.1.1: Group living things into plants and animals based on their physical features	B4.1.1.1.1: Group living things into plants and animals based on their uses

STRUCTURE

The Science curriculum is structured to cover B1 to B3 under five strands with a number of sub-strands as shown in the table below:

STRAND	B1	B2	B3
	SUB-STRANDS	SUB-STRANDS	SUB-STRANDS
1. DIVERSITY OF MATTER	1.Living and Non-Living Things 2. Materials	1. Living and Non-Living Things 2. Materials	1. Living and Non-Living Things 2. Materials
2. CYCLES	1. Earth Science 2. Life Cycles of organisms	1. Earth Science	1. Earth Science 2. Life Cycles of organisms
3. SYSTEMS	1. The Human Body Systems 2. Ecosystems	1. The Human Body Systems 2. The Solar system	1. The Human Body Systems 2. The Solar system 3. Ecosystems
4. FORCES AND ENERGY	1. Sources and Forms of Energy 2. Electricity and electronics 3. Forces and Movement	1. Sources and Forms of Energy 2. Electricity and Electronics 3. Forces and Movement	1. Sources and Forms of Energy 2. Electricity and Electronics 3. Forces and Movement
5. HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT	1. Personal Hygiene and Sanitation 2. Diseases 3. Science and Industry 4. Climate Change	1. Personal Hygiene and Sanitation 2. Diseases 3. Science and Industry 4. Climate Change	1. Personal Hygiene and Sanitation 2. Diseases 3. Science and Industry 4. Climate Change

 

 

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

 

STRAND	SUB-STRANDS	B1	B2	B3	B4	B5	B6
DIVERSITY OF MATTER	Living and Non-Living Things	√	√	√	√	√	√
	Materials	√	√	√	√	√	√
CYCLES	Earth Science	√	√	√	√	√	√
	Life Cycles of Organisms	√		√	√	√	√
SYSTEMS	The Human Body Systems	√	√	√	√	√	√
	The Solar System		√	√	√	√	√
	Ecosystem	√		√	√	√	√
FORCES AND ENERGY	Sources and Forms of Energy	√	√	√	√	√	√
	Electricity and Electronics	√	√	√	√	√	√
	Forces and Movement	√	√	√	√	√	√
HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT	Personal Hygiene and Sanitation	√	√	√	√	√	√
	Diseases	√	√	√	√	√	√
	Science and Industry	√	√	√		√	√
	Climate Change	√	√	√	√	√	√

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

Hornby, A.S. & Wehmeier, S. (2000). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Larson, J.O. (1995, April). Fatima's rules and other elements of an unintended chemistry curriculum. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting, San Francisco

Ogunniyi, M.B. (1984) Secondary school science teaching in Africa. New York: John Wiley Sons Ltd.

Okoli, J.N. (2003). Meaning and scope of science and technology. In P. Achugbu (ed.) Science and Technology in Society. Onitsha: West and Solomon Publishing Coy Ltd.

Woodburn, J.H. & Obourn, E.S. (1965). Teaching the pursuit of science. New York: Macmillan Company Ltd.