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LECTURE NOTES 3
NOTE ON CHILD STUDY
CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS HANDOUT
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LESSON ONE
Equity, inclusivity and Diversity in learner characteristics.
Meaning of Child study
• Systematic physiological and psychological enquiry of children and their ways, especially in regard to their educational adaptabilities and capacities, with a view to determining effective methods of teaching and of overcoming disabilities.
Ways of Studying Children
• Longitudinal Studies: These are studies that follow the same group of children over a period.
• Cross-Sectional Studies: These studies look at behaviour and abilities across different groups of children.
The Concept Learner
• Learner - means a female or a male of any age pursuing education in a formal, non-formal or informal, public or private education setting.
• Prior to 2019 the common term for referring to children in basic school was “pupil‟, a word that has been studiously avoided in favour of “learner‟ in the series of documents that support the introduction of the new Standard Based Curriculum in Ghana
• The curriculum, therefore, encourages the creation of a learning-centred classroom with the opportunity for learners to engage in meaningful “hands-on” activities that bring home to the learner what they are learning in school and what they know from outside of school.
The teacher should therefore create a learning atmosphere that ensures:
• Learners feel safe and accepted.
• Learners are given frequent opportunities to interact with varied sources of information, teaching and learning materials and ideas in a variety of ways.
• The teacher assumes the position of a facilitator or coach who helps learners to identify a problem suitable for investigation via project work.
• Problems are connected to the context of the learners’ world so that it presents authentic opportunities for learning.
• Subject matter around the problem, not the discipline.
• Learners responsibly define their learning experience and draw up a plan to solve the problem in question.
• Learners collaborate whilst learning.
• Demonstrate the results of their learning through a product or performance.
• It is more productive for learners to find answers to their own questions rather than for teachers to provide the answers and their opinions in a learning-centred classroom.
The Concept Inclusivity
• UNESCO defines inclusive education as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education.
• According to UNICEF, an education system is inclusive if it includes all students, and welcomes and supports them to learn. No one should be excluded. Every child has a right to inclusive education, including children with disabilities (UNICEF, 2017).
The inclusive teacher’s attitude and behaviour
• An inclusive teacher respects the individuality of each child
• Using appropriate words when talking about disabled children and their disability
• The use of respectful words is not only important in class and in school but also in the community at large.
• An inclusive teacher is aware of the different needs of pupils
• An inclusive teacher helps pupils to gain self-confidence and self-esteem
• An inclusive teacher helps pupils to feel included in the learning community
• An inclusive teacher acknowledges the contribution of each child.
Equity in Education
Equity refers to a condition or state of fair, inclusive, and respectful treatment of all people.
Equity in education means that all learners are treated fairly, although not always equal and are entitled to the same level of provision and quality.
Equity in education try to do the following:
• Respond to diversity and provide for the successful inclusion of all - Identify and provide systematic help to those who fall behind at school
• Direct resources to the students with the greatest needs
• Strengthen the links between school and home to help disadvantaged parents help their children to learn
• Give priority to early childhood provision and basic schooling
• Set concrete targets related to low school attainment and dropouts, and provide alternative pathways
Diversity Among Learners
No two children are the same.
Mention some of the ways in which individuals differ?
Learner Diversity: 1. Hearing impairments, 2. Visual impairments, 3. Physical impairments, 4. Cerebral palsy, 5. Epilepsy, 6. Mental handicaps, 7. Downs Syndrome 8. Autism, 9. Emotional and behavioral disorders, 10. Learning disabilities (LD), 11. Speech and language disorders, 12. HIV/AIDS, 13. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 14. Multiple handicaps, 15. Albinism, 16. Other health impairments chronic diseases such as Rheumatism, Epilepsy, Asthma, Spina Bifida and Sickle Cell Anaemia, 18. Are gifted and talented 19. Are deafblind, 20. Are orphaned, 21. Are abused, 22. Are living in the streets, 23. Are heading households, 24. Are of nomadic / pastoral communities such as shepherd boys, fisher-folks ‘children and domestic child workers) and 25. Are Internally displaced
Identifying Learner Characteristics
-Students who Are Sensory Impaired
-Students who are visually impaired and hearing impaired are referred
to as sensory impaired.
Hearing Impairment
Hearing impairment is a partial or total inability to hear.
Many children have a mild hearing loss while some have severe or profound hearing loss. Mild hearing loss is known as hard of hearing, while severe or profound hearing loss is known as deafness.
Hearing impairment may be sensorineural or conductive.
Conductive hearing loss: is damage to the outer or middle ear that interferes with sound waves reaching the cochlea
Characteristics of Hearing Impairment
• Poor attention
• Poor speech development
• Difficulty in following instructions
• The child may respond better to tasks assigned when the teacher is relatively close to him and her, or to written tasks rather than ones that require an oral response.
• The student may turn or cock head to one side to hear better.
• A child may have difficulty in hearing text read by others or the child may request his peers or teachers to speak louder.
• A child may have difficulty in hearing text read by others or the child may request his peers or teachers to speak louder.
Visual Impairment
Visually impaired students include individuals who are partially sighted and who are blind.
Low vision includes problems (after correction) such as dimness of vision, haziness, foggy vision, extreme near- or farsightedness, distortion of vision etc.
A child is termed legally blind when its visual acuity (sharpness of vision) is 20/200 or worse after correction, or when their field of vision is less than 20 degrees; in the best eye after correction.
A child is also blind if he/she cannot discriminate between day and night.
Characteristics of Visual Impairment
• Physical indictors: There may be red eyes, crusts on lids among the eye lashes, recurring styes or swollen eyelids, watery eyes or discharge, crossed eye etc.
• The student rubs eyes often or while doing close visual work.
• The student shuts or covers one eye when he has difficulty seeing with that eye or tilts the head or thrusts the head forward.
• Unusual facial behaviours: e.g. blinking, frowning, or facial distortion while reading or doing other close work.
• Unable to locate and pick up a small object.
• Light sensitivity or difficulty
• Difficulty with reading
Locomotor/Physical Impairment
Meaning: Locomotor/physical disabilities place some limitation on a person’s ability to move about, use their limbs or hands or control their
own movement.
The difficulty is movement in either gross or fine motor skills areas observed among many children in the school-going age.
Types of physical impairment include:
• Arthritis, Muscular Dystrophy, Poliomyelitis, Cerebral Palsy, Epilepsy, Spina bifida, Spinal Cord Injury
Characteristics of Locomotor/Physical Impairment
• The locomotor impaired children have poor movement control or co-ordination.
• They move in a shaky fashion.
• They show writing defects due to skeletal deformities.
• Due to less strength and vitality they show low ability in school work.
• They walk awkwardly or with a limp
Cognitive Problems/Intellectual Disability
Meaning of Cognitive Problems/Intellectual Disability
Learners who are intellectually disabled have significantly sub-average intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior than their chronological-or grade-age peers. Below average intellectual functioning is often defined as an IQ of 70 or lower. The onset of an intellectual disability must occur before the age of 18
Levels of Intellectual Disability
Mild intellectual disability with IQ score between 55–69,
Moderate intellectual disability with IQ score between 40–54,
Severe intellectual disability with IQ score between 25–39 and Profound intellectual disability with IQ score of 24 and below.
Characteristics of learners with mental disabilities
• Being slow in acquiring and developing skills such as speaking and walking being unnecessarily slow in carrying out tasks
• Not able to transfer the same activities into different situations
• Not able to understand what is said or follow instructions
• Failing to acquire, understand and use language to express a need
• Failing to develop social and emotional relationships
• Having retarded motor development
• Having difficulty in remembering experiences or things learnt
• Having difficulty in paying attention or focusing on an activity to its completion
• Memory and thinking difficulties
Autism
Meaning: Autism means a developmental disability (originates at birth or during childhood) significantly affecting verbal and non-verbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age
three, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance
Characteristics often associated with autism are:
• Engagement and repetitive activities in stereotype movements,
• Resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines
• Unusual responses to sensory experiences
• Difficulty in expressing needs; use gestures or pointing instead of talking
• Prefer to be isolated
• Have temper tantrums
Communication Disorders/Challenges
Meaning of Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, information and experiences between two or more people.
What is a Communication Disorder?
Communication disorders can be defined as a significant deviation in speech or language from norms based on sex, age, and cultural, ethnic, or social expectations.
Types
1. Speech disorders, such as misarticulation (which refers to difficulty with phonemes-the fundamental, distinctive sounds of a language), apraxia (which refers to difficulty of pitch, loudness or quality) and fluency disorders (which usually take the form of stuttering
2. Language disorders, which usually refer to difficulty in learning the native language with respect to content, form and usage or function, and possibly are present in those students with delayed language development).
Communication Disorders/Challenges
• Characteristics of Communication Disorders
• These may include, learners who:
• Stammer or stutter
• Speak abnormally too fast
• Have disorganized sentence structure, substitute, omit, distort or add speech sounds
• May have too high or too low tone
• May have hoarse (rough) or nasal voice under normal conditions
• Do not engage in activities that involve talking, such as asking questions in class
Emotional and Behaviour Disorders/Challenges
Meaning: Behavioral and emotional disorders fall under the heading of Emotional Disturbance.
• According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 2004 legislation, emotional disturbance is defined as follows:
Emotional disturbance means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
• An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
• An inability to create or sustain reciprocal relationships with peers and teachers.
• Inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings in typical situations or environments.
• A pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
• Frequent occurrences of physical symptoms or fears attached to personal or school problems.
Characteristics of emotional and behaviour disorders
Characteristics common in students with emotional disturbance indicate two patterns of behaviours: externalizing and internalized (Snowman, McCown, & Biehler, 2009).
Externalizing behaviour is the expression of feelings and emotional responses into behaviours that are directed outward into delinquent or aggressive behaviour.
• Externalizing behaviour students are often aggressive, uncooperative, restless, and radical.
• They tend to lie and steal, defy teachers, and be hostile to authority figures.
• Sometimes they are cruel.
Internalizing behaviours refer to a broad class of behaviours in which children direct feelings and emotions inward. Internalizing behaving students, are typically shy, timid, anxious, and fearful. They are often depressed and lack self-confidence.
Learning Disability
Meaning
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), define a learning disability as a “disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations..
Students with learning disabilities are students who are experiencing significant difficulties with at least one area of their learning at school. Learning disabilities are therefore often called specific learning
disabilities.
Types of Learning Disabilities
• Dyslexia (inability to read).
• Dyscalculia (inability in mathematics).
• Dysgraphia (inability to write).
Barriers to Learning
• These are the attitudes, beliefs, practices, physical or technological obstacles, or the lack of support, that result in a student’s exclusion from, or in their less-than-full participation as a valued equal in, the common learning environment in mainstream schools and classrooms.
• Barriers to learning refer to difficulties that arise within the education system as a whole, the learning site and/or within the learner him/herself, which prevent access to learning and development
• According to Johnsen and Skjørten (2001), children with disabilities face both environmental and individual barriers – these two forms of barriers are closely interrelated.
Environmental (and Attitudinal) Barriers
• Limited or no access to early intervention programmes – the disabling effect of impairment will be multiplied unless there is access to quality early intervention programmed (support systems)
• Teachers, school administrators and school inspectors – if they discriminate against children who are perceived to be different from the majority of their peers
• Legal and regulatory systems - if these are discriminating, segregating and excluding
• Curricula – if these are rigid and do not respond to diversity of abilities, needs and circumstances amongst learners
• Teaching approaches and teaching/learning material – if these are not learning-friendly, nor responsive to the diversity of needs and abilities among learners
• Assessment and evaluation system – whether these exclusively or primarily assess the academic level of children according to general standards, rather than individual progress - ideally the academic, social, emotional and physical development should be assessed and evaluated
• School and classroom environments – when these are not inclusive, learning-friendly, or even physically accessible
• Social, economic and political conditions
Individual Barriers
• Communication – if a child has a different first language than the majority of their peers, their teacher, and/or the learning material available in the school (this includes children who have sign language as their first language as well as those who use Braille as written language)
• Poor motivation – if children have little or no motivation for learning, due to many different factors, often related to the environmental and attitudinal barriers listed above
• Insecurity, low self-esteem and lack of self-confidence – this is likely to be the result of a combination of environmental, attitudinal, and individual barriers
• Abuse – children suffering from psychological, physical, and/or sexual abuse are likely to experience serious barriers to learning, development, and participation.
• Lack of social competence – many children experience social difficulties, difficulties that may create barriers to learning, development and participation, and ultimately marginalization in, and exclusion from, school.
• Temperament – if a child has moods and rages, is introvert and has difficulty communicating with her/his peers (as well as parents and teachers), finds it difficult to adapt to new and changing situations, is easily distracted, has a short attention span, and
• First-generation learners – if the child is the first in her/his family to go to school
• Cultural, language and religious minorities – many children belonging to a minority group will face enormous barriers to learning, development and participation.
• Impairment – many children with an impairment will face specific barriers related to their impairment such as: difficulties in communication because teachers and children in the school do not know how to use sign language; the lack of books in Braille, or toilets that are not accessible for wheelchair users.
• Health conditions – if a child is infected and/or affected by HIV, has epilepsy (a health condition as well as a disability), reoccurring malaria, or any other health condition that may lead to discrimination or keep the child away from school (ill at home or in hospital).
Techniques and processes of inclusive school-based enquiry
Concept and types of observation.
Observation is a deliberate and systematic attempt to watch and record a pre-selected behaviour of an individual for a purpose.
Observation is taking careful note of everything said or done by a child or children over a defined period of time in a particular setting or context.
Child observation by teachers according to Briggs and Potter (1999) is a process of systematically looking at and recording the behaviours of children in relation to their own behaviour.
By recording everything seen and heard, some questions can be answered by the observers, especially teachers; such as “what is this child paying attention to or interested in?”, “what experience does the child have of this?”, “what does the child already know about this?”, and “what does the child feel?”
The aim of giving responses to these questions is not to find the right answers; however, through responding to these questions, teachers have the best possibility of knowing more about the child while they are observing the child.
Observation Setting
• Natural setting: This is where the observation take place as the behaviour occurs in real-life settings. Usually, the setting is the usual place the subjects would normally be found.
• Contrived Setting: This refers to an environment that is designed or created by an observer to appear natural whereas it is really controlled by the observer as within a laboratory.
• Controlled Setting: In a controlled environment for observation, the observer limits behaviours of the person being observed to those relevant to his/her needs and interests.
Types of Observation
• Participant Observation: Here the investigator or observer takes part or gets involved in the activities and day to day lives of the people whose behaviour he or she is studying.
• Non-participant Observation: Here the observer remains distant from the group. This technique allows the investigator to detach himself or herself from the activities of those he/she is observing.
Processes of Observation
Whilst teachers are constantly observing children in the classroom, most of this is on a casual basis. The observation process involves the following:
• Identify Objective. It is not possible to observe everything at once, so a teacher must decide what the main goal of his/her observation is.
• Determine what you want to observe and why: Many of the things that are taught in schools can be evaluated through observations. Some skills which can’t be evaluated through pencil and paper include the ability to read aloud, practical home economics and practical agricultural skills. Attitudes which can be best evaluated by observation include sensitivity to others and reactions to social issues.
• Develop questions and techniques: Now that an observation technique or techniques have been decided on, the following guidelines are used in developing observation instruments: 1. Writing individual items for observation checklist, 2. editing and validating the instrument, 3. establishing the reliability, 4. decision on the recording process, 5. identification and listing of possible ground rules
• Observe and take notes. Field notes are accounts reconstructed from observations taken when the observer can jot down only a few phrases describing the event and perhaps fragments of the children’s speech in the situation. It is very difficult to remember details of an event, particularly dialogue, after more than a little time has passed.
• Analyse behaviours and Inferences. Observations are not the same as interpretations – they are descriptions that become the raw material for interpretation. Interpretations are a level removed from the phenomena.
Techniques for Observing
Target child observation: In a target child observation the observer is concerned with observing one specific child. The observation is conducted over a predetermined period of time. The observer observes a child at regular intervals throughout a session or sessions, a very full picture can be built up of the child’s activities, interaction and developing skills and understanding
This is a very intensive method of observation and so a coding system is usually used for recording what is happening, identifying who the child is using language with, their level of involvement in the activity, whether they are alone / group size, etc
• Activity codes: TC = target child (the child’s name or initials are not used), C = child, A = adult
• Language codes:
• To record language (what the child is saying), you would simply write: TC>C, if the target child is speaking to another child, or TC>A, if they are speaking to an adult.
• Task codes: LSC = large-scale construction, MAN = manipulation, PS = problem solving
• Social codes: SOL = the target child is playing on their own (solitary), PAIR = the child is with one other person, child or adult
Time Sampling Observation. Time sampling records the frequency of a behaviour. Time sampling are a narrative picture of what a child is doing at a particular moment in time.
Time sampling involves identifying specified behaviours of an individual or group and recording the presence or absence of this behaviour during short term intervals of uniform length. The observer needs to prepare ahead of time, determining what specific behaviour the observer wants to look for, what the time interval will be (e.g. every 15 minutes,) and how to record the presence or absence of the behaviour.
A case study—Kwabena
• Kwabena (four years two months) has recently begun to use physically aggressive behaviours in his interactions with the other children. You are aware that it would be easy to fall into the trap of simply starting to see Kwabena as an aggressive boy. You might decide to use time sampling to discover exactly how often and when Kwabena’s inappropriate behaviour occurs. In this way, you will discover information not only about the frequency of the behaviour but possibly what triggers or might be motivating his behaviour.
Your first task would be to specifically define inappropriate behaviour. In this case, the list is:
• hitting
• pushing
• kicking
• holding children against their will
• taking another child’s toy.
You would then need to decide what time intervals to use. In this case, the teacher wanted to sample the child’s behaviour for five-minute intervals during the first half-hour of the morning for a week.
You could record ‘1’ after the interval if the behaviour occurs and ‘0’ if it does not. This is called 'duration recording' and indicates the presence or absence of the behaviour.
Time intervals (5 minutes each/ 9.00–9.30 am)
Duration recording (presence or absence)
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An alternative is to use checkmarks or tally marks if you want to know how many times the behaviour occurred, rather than just its presence or absence. This is called 'event recording' and shows the frequency of the behaviour.
Event recording (frequency)
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You might also want to know exactly which behaviours are occurring and when. You could give the identified behaviours a code to make it easier for you to record them quickly. For example:
h=hitting, k=kicking, t=taking, hd=holding, p=pushing
Event recording (presence or absence)
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h, p | h, p, t | H | 0 | 0 | 0 |
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Event sampling: In an event sample observation, the observer is looking for particular events or behaviours, and makes a note of when it occurred as well as the context in which it occurred.
The observer must first define the event or ‘unit of behaviour’.
Then, the setting in which it is most likely to occur must be determined. The observer then waits for it to occur and records it at the time or from memory.
Recording can be done in several ways, depending on the purpose for the observation. If the observer is studying causes or results for certain behaviours then the ‘ABC analysis’ is especially useful. It is a narrative description of the entire event, breaking it down into three parts:
• A = antecedent event
• B = behaviour
• C = consequent event.
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Name: Kwame |
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Age: 5 years |
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| Present: Kwadwo and Kofi |
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Observational question: |
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| What happens immediately before and after Kwame kicks others? | ||||
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8.15 am | Kwame | Kwame looks at Kwadwo and | Kwadwo cries and runs to tell | |||
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10.02 am | In the | Kwame kicks Kofi hard on the | Kofi cries, the teacher comes | ||
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LESSON FOUR
Developing Tools for Data Collection
Definition of Data
Data can be regarded as information. Data of study are pieces of information obtained in the course of an investigation.
Data are therefore the facts or ideas or knowledge that are gathered in a study.
Definition of Data Collection
Data collection is nothing more than the process of gathering relevant information from various sources into one place.
Data collection is therefore the process of getting the information (data) that is useful to the study.
Developing a Checklist, Rating Scales and Inventories for Classroom Observation.
Checklist: A checklist, sometimes called a tick list or tick chart, is a list of behaviours or skills that the observer marks or checks if the learner is seen to demonstrate them.
It does not require the observer to make any judgements about the strength of behaviour, but simply to record whether it occurs or not.
The number of ticks is compared with the total number of items to show whether the performance is high or low frequency. The number of ticks is compared with the total number of items to show whether the performance is high or low frequency.
Steps in Constructing a checklist
• The teacher should identify the process to be observed
• The teacher should construct a list of behaviours that will reflect the process
• The teacher should decide on the most appropriate method of observing these behaviours and arrange the items on the list so that it can be used under this method.
• The teacher should provide a simple marking scale with instructions on how to use it
• The teacher should select assistants, or practice himself or herself using the checklist
Sample checklist for language development: Two-year-old
A blank checklist could look something like this:
Child’s Name: Esi
Rating scales
Rating means measuring an attribute of objects or persons by judgment in a continuum or range.
A rating scale is an assessment tool used to judge or rate the quality of a particular trait, characteristic, or attribute of the learner based on pre-determined criteria.
A rating scale consists of a set of characteristics or qualities to be judged and some type of scale for indicating the degree to which each attribute is present.
Two commonly approaches to rating used in such scales are:
• Numerical rating scales which offer the observer choices designated by sequential number values. Such rating scale is well known with its grades of say 1 to 4 where 4 is outstanding; 3 is good; 2 is satisfactory; 1 is inadequate. A numerical scale also could be used to indicate the intensity of behaviour when it occurs. The observer circles or otherwise indicates the number that seems most appropriate.
• Graphic rating scales is where series of verbal phrases (descriptors) instead of numbers are used to indicate the level of performance and the observer marks the quality of the behaviours or characteristic of the learner using descriptors of frequency of occurrence on a continuum. Typical descriptors include: Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Always and Poor, Average, Excellent.
Constructing a rating scale
• Outcomes to be measured must be observable
• Rating scales should contain positive and negative statements
• Each item should measure a continuum or one thing only
• Define the continuum on the scale as objectively as possible
• Rating scales should include the most essential things only
Child’s Name: Esi
Date: September/October 2018
Anecdotal Records
An anecdotal record is an observational system that gives a brief account of the events on behaviours at specific times (Podmore and Luff (2012).
Maduabum (1996) explains that anecdotal records refer to informal reports of a teacher’s observations of behaviour that the teacher considers typical of the individual described. They are said to be informal in the sense that there is usually no planning of observing the individual.
An anecdotal record (or anecdote) is therefore like a short story that educators use to record a significant incident that they have observed.
Anecdotal records are usually relatively short and may contain descriptions of behaviours and direct quotes.
Similar to how we might recount a story to family and friends, it is told in the past tense. It has its beginning when a child starts to participate in an activity and its conclusion when the child leaves/completes/exits the experience.
Sample anecdotal record
Child’s Name: Frimpong C.
Date & Time: 4/23/18 9:15am
Place or Learning Center: Preschool Classroom
Frimpong sat next to a child at the reading table. The child greeted Frimpong with “Hi, Frimpong! Want to read a book with me?” Frimpong said that he couldn’t read. The child replied, “We can look at the pictures
A running record is a continuous observation of a behaviour stream for a particular period of time. The observer writes down what the pupil says and does for a length of time or a particular activity. During the recording, the observer should aim not to interpret what is seen but to provide an account of a naturally occurring behaviour. After making a record, the observer may write up their conclusion and briefly summarise what occurred.
Sample running record
• Florence kneels down next to Yvonne and begins wiping her face with a wet cloth. As Florence starts to wipe Yvonne’s right hand, Yvonne grabs the cloth with her left hand and pulls it away from Florence. Florence asks, “You wanna do it?” Yvonne starts wiping her mouth and tongue, holding the cloth tightly in both hands. Florence smiles, claps her hands together and exclaims, “OK! Good job!” Florence reaches out and begins to lift Yvonne’s apron over her head. Yvonne transfers the wet cloth to her right hand, then, as the apron is lifted up and over her head, grabs it with both hands again. She wipes the cloth across her cheek and mouth, then strongly hit her tongue four times.
Tally Sheet
A tally sheet is a quantitative method that allows observers to record how often a targeted behaviour or list of behaviours occurs. Observers often use a specific grid or matrix format to record their observations.
Sample tally record
In this example, the observer is looking for quantitative information about one child and 5 specific behaviours. At the top of the form, it is a good idea to record the purpose of your observation, in the form of a
“How often…” question.
GOOD LUCK IN YOUR EXAMS
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