COURSE OUTLINE
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LESSON ONE
The language and literacy course manual
· Key component of the language and literacy course manual
· Content and expectations of the language and literacy course manual
Misconceptions and biases about language and literacy
· Misconceptions and biases about language and literacy
· Addressing the misconceptions and biases about language and literacy
MISCONCEPTIONS AND BIASES ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
1. One must learn his/her native language before considering other languages
2. The best way to learn the spelling of a word is to write it several times.
3. all children will acquire sufficient literacy skills through play
4. Failure to learn to read and write is associated with low intelligence.
5. Children can learn to read the same way they learn to talk, by immersion
6. Children can learn how to spell words from reading them
7. The main determinant of a child’s success in reading is the home environment
8. Technological translations of languages make learning other languages less important
9. There will always be a percentage of children who do not learn to read irrespective of the teaching methods used
10. If the whole language approach to teaching reading works for some children and the phonic approach works for other children, then a combined approach should work for all children.
ADDRESSING THE MISCONCEPTIONS AND BIASES ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
1. Public education through the media.
2. Sensitization of workshop.
Definition and Characteristics of Language
· Definitions of language
· Characteristics of human language
· Differences between a language and a dialect
DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
What is language?
Ø Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols, principally transmitted by vocal sounds.
Ø Is the systematic and conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in human society for communication and self-expression.”
Ø Language refers to a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
PROPERTIES/FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. Productivity
2. Displacement
3. Arbitrariness
4. Duality
5. Discreteness
6. Cultural transmission
7. Dynamic
Productivity: The productivity of Language refers to the resourceful or versatile nature of language which makes it possible for human beings to use a finite set of sounds to produce and understand an infinite number of messages that have never been expressed before and also use language to express new ideas. In the use of language, speakers can always add (within limits) more words or phrases or substitute synonymous forms in a sentence to make a "first time in the history of the universe" statement. This relates to the creativity trait which confers our language the ability to ply the already established norms of grammar, morphology, and syntax into new words, complete with new semantic goals. For example, whenever a rock star or someone famous coins a new word, such a word is accepted and even used globally.
Displacement: It is used in human communication to describe or refer to things that are not visually present. Yet, the fact that their names are mentioned adds to the validity of human productivity. This feature of languages refers to the ability to speak not only about what is happening at the time and place of talking but also about other situations, future, and past, real or unreal things. For instance, Babies are often taught displacement when they are asked questions such as "Where is grandma?" even when grandma is not in the room. Using this property shows that words are still valid with or without visual support.
Arbitrariness: When we say language is arbitrary, it means that written words and spoken words do not necessarily have to correlate in terms of sound and symbol thus there’s no relationship between sounds of words and their meaning. We can write a word and pronounce it completely different. It means that there is no natural connection between the word or sound and the thing it denotes, which means we cannot tell what the meaning of a word is simply by looking at it. For instance, there is nothing in the HAUSA word‚ RUA which tells us that it means the same as the English word, WATER or EWE word TSI or Twi word NSUO. Hausa people can decide to call this item, ARU; the English can call it TAWER and the Ewe people, SIT and Akan SUOS but the reference will still be the same.
Duality: The duality of language refers to the fact that every 'piece' or unit of language fits into larger 'pieces' or units. Sounds fit into syllables, syllables into words, words into phrases, phrases into clauses, etc. This means that words can be broken apart into chunks (parts or pieces).
Human language can therefore be seen on two levels. These levels are levels of sounds and the levels of concepts that a combination of sounds represents.
Those chunks may or may not have meaning; however, they are extremely useful to form new words. A wonderful example of such important word chunks is suffixes and prefixes. Although the alphabets and sounds, themselves, do not seem to have meaning, when they are attached to a word in speech or writing, they affect the meaning of that word, altogether. Hence, not every part of a word has to make sense on its own. That is the duality of it.
Discreteness: Discreetness sort of reaffirms duality as it establishes the fact that words are a combination of sounds and symbols, and the symbols are letters and syllables. Again, the syllables may have no meaning on their own, but they are indeed identifiable as imperative in the process of word formation. Even though they do not seem important, they are recognized as being so.
Cultural transmission: Although we are all born with certain fixed genetic predisposition for language use, it does not predetermine which language we are actually going to use as our mother tongue. A Chinese baby brought as a toddler in Great Britain and raised by a British family is going to speak English and not Chinese, though he will still look like a Chinese. Language has a semantic system, or a meaning potential which enables the transmission of cultural values.
DIALECT
Dialect: This is a different variety of the same language that has evolved over time in a different geographical location.
Dialect is a variety of language used by a group of speakers within a particular speech community. The study of all forms of dialects is termed dialectology (also called linguistic geography), and the person who studies dialect is a dialectologist.
IDIOLECT
Idiolect: is a speech habit peculiar to a person
DISTINCTION BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND A DIALECT
LANGUAGE | DIALECT |
It’s not mutually intelligible | It’s mutually intelligible |
By definition: Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols, principally transmitted by vocal sounds. | By definition: Is a different variety of the same language that has evolved over time in a different geographical location. |
It classified into spoken and written | It classified into standard and non-standard |
Stages and components of Literacy development
· Definition of literacy
· Stages of literacy development
· Components of literacy
LITERACY
What is literacy?
Literacy is the ability to read, write and understand concepts in a language.
Literacy is the cognitive skills of reading and writing. Literacy is subdivided into three categories;
Basic literacy, Comprehension, and Functional or practical literacy.
BASIC LITERACY: This is the ability to use correspondences of visual shapes, to spoken sounds, in order to decode written materials, and to translate them into oral language.
COMPREHENSION LITERACY: Comprehension literacy, in the view of Miller means having the ability to understand the meaning of verbal materials.
FUNCTIONAL OR PRACTICAL LITERACY: Functional or practical literacy means the ability to read (decode and comprehend) materials needed to perform everyday tasks
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
LESSON TWO
STAGES OF LITERACY DEVELOPMENT/ACQUISITION
1. Early Emergent: Readers develop many phonological skills such as recognizing phonemes, syllables, and rhymes, etc.
2. Upper Emergent
3. Early Fluency: reading is more automatic with more energy devoted to comprehension than word attack.
4. Fluency: Readers have successfully moved from learning to read to reading to learn.
EARLY EMERGENT STAGE
The early emergent readers are just beginning to grasp the basic concepts of book and print. They are acquiring a command of the alphabet with the ability to recognize and name letters (both upper and lowercase letters). They are also developing many phonological awareness skills such as recognizing phonemes, syllables, and rhyme. Early Emergent readers are beginning to learn sound-symbol relationships (CVC) words, as well as a number of high-frequency words. Frequency words include pronouns, prepositions, articles etc.
UPPER EMERGENT STAGE
Emergent readers are developing a much better grasp of comprehension strategies and word-attack skills. They can recognize different types of text, particularly fiction and non-fiction, and recognize that reading has a variety of purposes. At this stage, the child has developed an understanding of the alphabet, phonological awareness, and early phonics. They have command of a significant number of high-frequency words.
EARLY FLUENCY STAGE
At the early fluent stage, reading is more automatic, with more energy devoted to comprehension than word attack. Readers are approaching independence in comprehending text. These readers are experiencing a greater variety of text and are able to recognize different styles and genres. Independence often varies with the type of text being read.
FLUENCY STAGE
Fluent readers have successfully moved from “learning to read” to “reading to learn”. Their reading is automatic and it is done with expression and proper pauses. Their energy is devoted to understanding, and they have good command and use of various comprehension strategies. These readers read a wide range of text types and do so independently. They will continue to refine and develop their reading skills as they encounter more difficult reading materials. But for the most part, they are capable of improving their reading skills and selection of materials independently through increased practice.
COMPONENTS OF LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
1. Oral language
2. Letters and Words
3. Phonological and Phonemic Awareness
4. Knowledge of Print
5. Vocabulary (print and spoken)
6. Books and Other Texts
7. Comprehension
8. Fluency
9. Automaticity
Challenges of developing literacy
· Causes of the challenges encountered in developing literacy
· Challenges in developing literacy in both L1 and L2
· Solutions to the challenges in developing literacy
CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPING LITERACY IN BOTH L1 AND L2
1. Physiological Issues
2. Issues with decoding
3. Poor comprehension
4. Unqualified teachers to handle the subject.
5. Inadequate teaching and learning resources.
6. Lack of motivation
7. Misconception
CAUSES OF THE CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN DEVELOPING LITERACY
1. Accident
2. Abnormalities
3. Ignorant
4. Poverty
SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING LITERACY
SEARCH
LESSON THREE
Theories of Language acquisition/ learning
-Theories of L1 acquisition
-Implications of the theories for teaching and learning
THEORIES OF FIRST (L1) LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
1. The Behaviorist Theory
2. Theory of Cognitive Development
3. Developmental Perspective of Language Acquisition Theory
4. Innatist Theory (extra theory)
THE BEHAVIORIST THEORY
The Behaviourist Learning Theory is posited principally by B.F. Skinner.The behaviourists explain that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. As children imitate sounds, people around them praise them and this encourages the children to produce more sounds. Children continue to imitate and practise sounds and patterns until they form “habits” of correct language use. According to the behaviourist, the quantity of the language which the child hears, as well as the consistency of reinforcement offered in the environment, should have an effect on the child’s success in language learning. If we go by the above explanation given by the behaviorists, we can say then that if we want our children to learn a second language, some steps must be taken.
THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The cognitive development theory was propounded by Jean Piaget. The theory contends that there are different phases of’ intellectual development and each stage is associated with certain behavioural activities. What and how a child learns is determined largely by the child’s present stage of development. Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development presents four stages of development in which children acquire language
LESSON FOUR
-L1 acquisition
-Stages of L1 acquisition
-Determinants of L1 acquisition
L1 ACQUISITION
First language acquisition (L1) is the native language of a person.
First language acquisition (L1): It’s where one unconsciously acquires a formal language (native language)
STAGES OF L1 ACQUISITION
Pre-talking / cooing stage
Babbling stage
Holophrastic stage
Two-word stage
Telegraphic stage
Multi-word stage
DETERMINANTS OF L1 ACQUISITION
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LESSON FIVE
Learning Outcome
· Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of bilingual education and identify how it impacts language and literacy development of learners (NTS 2c and 3b)
2c. has secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for the school and grade they teach in.
3b. carries out small-scale action research to improve practice.
Learning Indicators
· Define and discuss the concepts of bilingualism and bilingual education.
· Identify and discuss the types of bilingual education.
· Discuss the bilingual education model in Ghana
What is Bilingualism?
Bilingualism means different things to different people. Bilingualism may be defined basically as having the ability to use two (or even more) languages. Haugen (1953) posits that
bilingualism begins at a point where a speaker of one language can produce complete and meaningful utterances in another language.
There are therefore various degrees of bilingualism.
What is Bilingual Education?
Bilingual education is a term that refers to the teaching of academic content in two languages, in a native and second language. Varying amounts of each language are used depending on the outcome goal of the model.
Types of Bilingual Education
Transitional bilingual education
It involves the partial or total use of the child’s home language when the child enters school, and later a change to the use of the school language only. The goal of transitional bilingual education is to transition students into English-only classrooms as quickly as possible. This is sometimes called early exit bilingual education. This is the model used in Ghana where children start with their home language at the early stages and as they make progress, the home language is dropped gradually. For instance. A child who lives in Amedzofe is taught in Ewe at the lower levels (From Kg-Primary 3) and begins to be taught in the home language and a percentage of English and later taught in English only. According to Klu and Ansre (2018), the inconsistency in the transition period from mother-tongue medium of instruction to English only medium of instruction is the major flaw of the Ghanaian model of bilingual education.
Maintenance
It involves the use of the child’s home language when the child enters school, then a gradual change to the use of the school language for teaching some subjects and the native language for teaching others.
Submersion
Students are placed in an English-speaking classroom with native English speakers regardless of the students’ level of proficiency in English. The students are expected to learn the content of the material taught in English, even though they may still be learning the language.
Immersion
Immersion refers to a type of bilingual education program where non-English-speaking students spend the entire day learning subjects taught in English. Teachers may attempt to simplify the language for these students if needed. Immersion might also refer to the practice of English-speaking students being taught another language.
Importance of Bilingual Education
· To assimilate individuals or groups into the mainstream of society.
· To unify a multilingual society.
· To enable people to communicate with the outside world.
· To provide language skills that are marketable, aiding employment and status.
· To preserve ethnic and religious identity.
· To reconcile and mediate between different linguistic and political communities.
· To spread the use of a colonial language.
· To strengthen elite groups and preserve their position in society.
· To give equal status in law to languages of unequal status in daily life.
· To deepen understanding of language and culture.
Revision Questions
1. Briefly define the term ‘Bilingual Education’?
2. State and briefly explain the types of Bilingual Education.
3. Identify and discuss the model of Bilingual Education used in Ghana.
4. State four importance of bilingual education.
LESSON SIX
THE LANGUAGE SITUATION IN GHANA
Learning Outcome
· Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of bilingual education and identify how it impacts language and literacy development of learners (NTS 2c and 3b)
2c. has secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for the school and grade they teach in.
3b. carries out small-scale action research to improve practice.
Learning Indicators
· Identify different languages spoken in Ghana.
· Discuss the difficulties the language situation in Ghana presents for teaching and learning.
· Identify the challenges and advantages of multilingualism in Ghana.
Languages Spoken in Ghana
Ghana is a multilingual society with about 44 indigenous languages and a number of cross border languages (Hall, 1983). Nine of the forty-four languages have since independence been officially approved by the state for use in education and academia. These nine officially approved indigenous languages are Akan (in its three varieties of Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, and Fante), Dagaare-Wali, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, and Nzema. These languages were chosen because they have larger populations and a strategic distribution (Hall, 1983). The nine approved local languages are, however, not the media of instruction; their status in education has varied according to the policy on the use of mother tongue in education of successive governments since independence.
The Language Situation in Ghana
The language of education in multilingual societies has always been a matter of concern to educators and educational planners. As Ouadraogo (2000, p. 89) has pointed out “Education and
language issues are very complex in Africa because of the multi-ethnic and multi-lingual situation”. The situation is even more severe when the official language of the nation is different from any of the indigenous languages. There is always controversy over which language to use in school especially at the lower primary level in multilingual societies. Over sixty years after independence, Ghana is still grappling with which language to use as the medium of instruction in the lower primary school (primary one to three/grade one to three). The language policy of education in Ghana has had a checkered history since the colonial era. In May 2002, Ghana promulgated a law, which mandates the use of English language (hereafter L2) as the medium of instruction from primary one (grade one) to replace the use of a Ghanaian language as the medium of instruction for the first three years of schooling, and English as the medium of instruction from primary four (grade four). This new policy has attracted a lot of criticism from a section of academics, politicians, educators, traditional rulers, and the general populace.
Multilingualism in Ghana
Africa probably has the most complex and varied language situation in the world. The multiplicity of African languages is enormous, according to UNESCO over 2,000 languages, 30 percent of the world’s languages are spoken in Africa. Multilingualism is a feature of everyday life in Ghana and it seems that it will remain the norm for a long time to come. It is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple Ghanaian languages, but one or more European ones as well. The multilingual situation in Ghana is very intense because Hall (1983) indicates there are about 44 native languages in Ghana including the foreign languages spoken. The only advantage that seem to emanate from the multilingual language situation in Ghana is that it helps to identify the importance of individual difference through the diverse native languages spoken. Multilingualism in Ghana has posed more challenges than benefits
Challenges of Multilingualism in Ghana
Multilingualism prevailing in Ghana has been perceived as a principally negative complication for national development rather than as an asset to be exploited and the dominance of ex-colonial languages in official use, instead of a single, dominant Ghanaian language understood by most citizens, have been since independence seen by many Ghanaian politicians and intellectuals as a major impediment to national integration and the development of nation-states demanding too much of human and material resources.
1. The continued dependence of the Ghanaian government on ex-colonial metropolitan languages has led to “linguistic imperialism”. The continuous use of English as lingua franca impedes the development of Ghanaian unity culturally, economically, and politically.
2. The dominance of the many languages without any use as a national language deprives the majority of Ghanaians access to knowledge, and hinders them from participating in national politics and the decision-making process.
3. Multilingualism slows down national integration and development of a nation-state, with national culture, creates insecurity and feeling of inferiority among those who have to operate in the English language of the ruling élite.
4. The colonial legacy has rendered Ghanaian languages invalidated though they are spoken by the majority of people. Since none of these Ghanaian languages is used as a national language because of the multilingual situation, the indigenous languages are invalidated compared to the colonizer’s language.
Revision Questions
1. Identify five languages spoken in Ghana?
2. What are the challenges the language situation in Ghana presents for teaching and learning?
3. What is the language situation in Ghana?
4. Discuss the challenges of multilingualism in Ghana.
LESSON SEVEN
LANGUAGE POLICY OF EDUCATION IN GHANA
Learning Outcome
· Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of language planning and the language policy in Ghana and identify how it impacts language and literacy development of learners (NTS 2c)
2c. has secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for the school and grade they teach in.
Learning Indicators
· Discuss the concept of language planning and language policy.
· Discuss the language policy of education in Ghana.
Language Planning and Policy
Language planning is defined as the planning of deliberate changes in the form or use of a language or language variety. Language planning is a government-authorised, long-term, sustained and conscious effort to alter a language's function in a society for the purpose of solving communication problems' (Weinstein, 1980: 56). In other words, language planning refers to the process of assessing language resources, assigning preferences and functions to one or more languages, and developing their use according to previously determined objectives. The social nature of Language planning requires planners to consider the needs and wants of those at whom the planning is directed. There are three main aims to language planning. The three aims associated with language planning are the linguistic aims, semi linguistic aims and extra linguistic aims. Extra-linguistic aims refer to changes in the use of language or languages; semi-linguistic aims concern changes in writing systems, spelling and pronunciation while linguistic aims are directed at changes in vocabulary, including its expansion or standardization. Language policy refers to a documentary evidence on the change in language use in line with the language planning arrangement.
Language Policy of Education in Ghana
The controversy about the language to use as the medium of instruction in Ghanaian schools, especially at the lower basic level dates back to the castle schools and missionary era. Before formal education was introduced into Ghana in the name of white love (Spring, 1998), traditional education was conducted in the indigenous languages. With the inception of formal education and the subsequent use of English as the medium of instruction, the indigenous languages were seen as “inadequate” as teaching media (Bamgbose, 2000). Bilingual education in Ghana commenced with the inception of formal education in Ghana which began with the castle schools and was later continued by the Christian missionaries. This period is the pre-colonial period (1529-1925). The languages used were those of the home country (the metropolitan languages). Portuguese, Dutch, Danish and English were used as media of instruction wherever and whenever the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Danes and the English respectively were in power. The situation, however, changed with the arrival of the missionaries, who resorted to the development of the local languages in both their educational and proselytizing efforts. The Basel and Bremen missionaries were more successful in this area than the Wesleyans (Graham, 1971). The language policies during this period were as varied as they were independent (Andoh-Kumi, 1994). The use of a Ghanaian language during the period from 1529 to 1925 had gained root to the extent that when the British colonial government took over the administration of education in the country in 1925, it could not reverse the trend (Bamgbose, 2000). During this period, a systematic pattern began to emerge with regard to both education and language use. The first legislation on the use of a Ghanaian language in education was promulgated (MacWilliam, 1969; Graham, 1971; Gbedemah, 1975). Ghanaian language was to be used as the medium of instruction only at the lower primary level, with English used thereafter. The policy was reversed and became unstable when the administration of the country came under the jurisdiction of indigenous Ghanaians in 1957. Since then, the use of a Ghanaian language as the medium of instruction at the lower primary level has had a checkered history. From 1925 to 1951, a Ghanaian language was used as medium of instruction for the first three years. Between 1951 and 1956, it was used only for the first year. From 1957 to 1966 a Ghanaian language was not used at all, from 1967 to 1969 it was used only for the first year, and between 1970 and 1974 a Ghanaian language was used for the first three years and where possible beyond (to the sixth year). From 1974 to 2002 a Ghanaian language was used for the first three years. A Ghanaian language in this case is the language of the locality which includes one of the following: Akan (Fante and Twi), Nzema, Ga, Ga-Adangbe, Ewe, Gonja, Kasem, Dagbani, and Dagaare.
At present, the policy states that English should be used as the medium of instruction from primary one, with a Ghanaian language studied as a compulsory subject to the Senior Secondary School (High School) (Ameyaw-Akumfi, 2002). The government on 15th August, 2002 approved this policy to be implemented in September 2002. Since the announcement of the change of policy, the debate over the language of education has picked up momentum from academics, politicians, educators, educational planners, traditional rulers, and the general populace. Ghana has been a strong advocate of the African personality since Nkrumah’s era. The promulgation of the use of English as the medium of instruction in education and the abandoning of her indigenous languages in education is therefore in opposition to this ideology. Unlike most Francophone countries which had French forced on them as medium of instruction through the Brazzaville Conference of 1944 and made the use of local languages in schools forbidden (Djite, 2000), Ghana had the British lay a solid foundation for the use of the indigenous languages as media of instruction at the lower primary level. For example, Cote d’Ivoire prior to independence in 1960 entered into an agreement with France to maintain the cultural and linguistic policies of their colonizers (Djite, 2000). Ghana unlike most Francophone countries has come a long way in the use of indigenous languages as media of instruction. The country’s recent turn towards the “Francophone phenomenon” is saddening and baffling. The multimillion-dollar question is what necessitated the change
Why the Change in the Language Policy?
The use of the child’s primary language in education at least the early stages have been theoretically and empirically confirmed to be beneficial. There is a plethora of evidence for the use of L1 in education but Ghana for a number of reasons has decided to espouse an English only language policy in its education. The reasons given include the following (source: The Statesman, Thursday July 16, 2002):
1. The previous policy of using a Ghanaian language as medium of instruction in the lower primary level was abused, especially in rural schools. Teachers never spoke English in class even in primary six.
2. Students are unable to speak and write ‘good’ English sentences even by the time they
complete the Senior Secondary School (High School).
3. The multilingual situation in the country especially in urban schools has made instruction in a Ghanaian language very difficult. The source added that a study conducted by the Ministry of Education showed that 50 to 60 percent of children in each class in the urban area speak a
different language. “It is therefore problematic if we insist that all the children be instructed in Ga, Twi, or Dagbani depending on whether it is Accra, Kumasi or Tamale”.
4. There is a lack of materials in the Ghanaian languages to be used in teaching. The minister of Education declared that “Only five, out of the languages that are spoken by our major ethnic groups, have material developed on them. Certainly, we cannot impose these five languages on the entire nation and people of other ethnic origins”.
5. There is a lack of Ghanaian language teachers specifically trained to teach content subjects in the Ghanaian language. The minister added “merely being able to speak a Ghanaian language does not mean one can teach in it”.
6. There is no standard written form of the Ghanaian languages. He says “For nearly all the languages that we have, there is hardly any standard written form”.
7. The minister in order to support the claim for the use of English as the medium of instruction from primary one cited an experiment by Rockwell (1989) and indicated that children transfer from L2 to L1 better.
8. The minister pointed out that English is the lingua franca of the state and that all effort must be put in to ensure that children acquire the right level of competence in both the spoken and written forms of the language.
Revision Questions
1. What is the difference between language policy and language planning?
2. What is the current language policy in education in Ghana?
3. What are the disadvantages of using the L1 of Ghanaian children as the language of instruction in schools?
LESSON EIGHT
Learning Outcome
· Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of language planning and the language policy in Ghana and identify how it impacts language and literacy development of learners (NTS 2a and 2c)
2a. demonstrates familiarity with the education system and key policies guiding it. (Assessment)
2c. has secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for the school and grade they teach in.
Learning Indicators
· Discuss the challenges of the language policy implementation in Ghana and suggest ways to address the challenges.
Challenges of Language Policy in Ghana
· Insufficient local TLMs
· Delays in supply of reference materials
· Inadequate skilled personnel
· Slow pace of government commitment
· Discrepancies at a transition point
· Lack of infrastructure
Solutions to the Challenges of the Language Policy in Ghana
· Provision of adequate and relevant TLR’s (Teacher Learner Resources)
· Timely provision of reference materials to aid teaching and learning
· Adequate training of teachers to teach in line with the policy
· Provision of diverse infrastructure to aid the policy.
Revision Questions
1. State five importance of Bilingual Education
2. Discuss four challenges of the language policy in education in Ghana?
3. Discuss four solutions to the challenges of the language policy in education in Ghana?
LESSON NINE
Learning Outcome
· Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of language planning and the language policy in Ghana and identify how it impacts language and literacy development of learners (NTS 2a and 2c)
2a. demonstrates familiarity with the education system and key policies guiding it.
2c. has secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for the school and grade they teach in.
Learning Indicator
· Discuss five characteristics of a good literacy teacher.
The Literacy Teacher
Teachers’ classroom behaviour, teachers’ subject knowledge and teachers’ beliefs on pupil learning are the three main determinants of a teacher’s effectiveness in the classroom. Notwithstanding, a good and exceptional literacy teacher can be identified based on certain characteristics and student-teachers must learn to exude these characteristics.
Characteristics of a Good Literacy Teacher
1. A good literacy teacher must expose students to quality children’s books and teach author’s style, plot, perspective and other elements such as illustration and art.
2. Share about their favorite books, authors and responses enthusiastically. Show excitement when introducing new books for the unit they start.
3. A good teacher must use class, school, and public libraries to bring books from different genres and to exhibit and use them for different reading modes.
4. A good literacy teacher has to choose a quality book is crucial for them. Therefore they look at the purpose of their instruction, what students will take away from it, students’ interest, curriculum needs, unit relations, their reading levels, and the topics/themes in the books.
5. A good literacy teacher has to create a link from literacy to other aspects of the curriculum (across curriculum).
6. A good literacy teacher has to engage students in activities and tasks through effective discussions, higher-order thinking and communication, questioning, and innovative approaches such as drama and various modes of reading, especially interactive read-aloud.
7. A good literacy teacher has to plan the read-aloud in detail especially if the book is being used for the first time by the teacher.
8. A good literacy teacher sets aside time and space and plan and promote independent and sustained silent reading exposing students to various books in different genres.
9. A good literacy teacher has to provide scaffolding extensively depending on what students need. Modeling is the teachers’ strongest asset.
10. A good literacy teacher has to skillfully combine explicit teaching and literacy based approach with contextual, authentic, meaningful, engaging and real-life purpose related activities. Instruction is embedded in real reading activities.
11. A good literacy teacher has to provide different types of instructional grouping depending on needs, interests, and content.
12. A good literacy teacher models and shares the love and the passion of reading through book talk.
13. A good literacy teacher has to provide constructive support and enough praise to motivate students them to move forward. Teachers are attentive to their pace and support students in every.
14. A good literacy teacher must have great listening skills and encourage and nurture students’ response effort using supportive language and positive feedback.
15. A good literacy teacher must create a nurturing environment in which every student is respected and each student’s voice is heard.
16. A good literacy teacher knows each student very well cognitively and affectively such as where they are in their reading, writing levels, comprehension, their likes, dislikes, interests and attitudes toward school, learning and reading.
Revision Question
1. State and briefly explain five qualities of a good literacy teacher?
LESSON TEN
COMPLEMENTARY CHAPTER
This chapter gives a detailed explanation to activities related to second language acquisition. It touches on the stages of second language acquisition and the differences between first and second language acquisition.
Stages of L2 Acquisition
1. PRE-PRODUCTION STAGES: This stage may last for several hours to several months, depending on the individual learner. During this time, new language learners typically spend time learning vocabulary and practice pronouncing new words. While they may engage in self-talk, they don’t normally speak the language with any fluency or real understanding. This stage is controversial among language educators. Ana Lomba disagrees that second language learners are totally silent while they are in this first learning stage. Instead, Lomba states that ‘’speech is fundamental in language acquisition’’ and learners excel in language acquisition when they apply what they learn as they learn it.
2. EARLY PRODUCTION: This stage may last about six months, during which language learners typically acquire an understanding of up to 1,000 words. They may also learn to speak some words and begin forming short phrases, even though they may not be grammatically correct.
3. SPEECH EMERGENCE: By this stage, learners typically acquire a vocabulary of up to 3,000 words, and learn to communicate by putting the words in short phrases, sentences and questions. Again, they may not be grammatically correct, but this is an important stage during which learners gain greater comprehension and begin reading and writing in their second language.
4. INTERMEDIATE FLUENCY: At this stage, which may last for a year or more after speech emergence, learners typically have a vocabulary of as many as 6,000 words. They usually acquire the ability to communicate in writing and speech using more complex sentences. This crucial stage is also when learners begin actually thinking in their second language, which helps them gain more proficiency in speaking it.
5. CONTINUED LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT/ADVANCED FLUENCY: It takes most learners at least two years to reach this stage, and then up to 10years to achieve full mastery of the second language in all its complexities and nuances. Second language learners need on-going opportunities to engage in discussions and express themselves in their new language, in order to maintain fluency in it. The key to learning a new language and developing proficiency in speaking and writing that language is consistency and practice. A student must converse with others in the new language on a regular basis in order to grow their fluency and confidence. In addition, Hayness says it’s important for students to continue to work with a classroom teacher on a specific content area related to the new language such as history, social studies, or writing.
The table below summarises the L2 Acquisition:
Stage of Second Language Acquisition
Stage |
| Characteristics | Approximate |
| Teacher |
| Time Frame |
| Prompts | ||
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| The student |
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| · | Has minimal |
| · | Show me … |
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Preproduction |
| comprehension. | 0–6 months | · | Circle the … |
| Does not verbalize. |
| Where is … ? | ||
| · |
| · | ||
| · | Nods "Yes" and |
| · | Who has … ? |
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| "No." |
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· | Draws and points. |
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| The student |
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| · | Has limited |
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| comprehension |
| · | Yes/no |
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| · Produces one- or |
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| questions | |
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| two-word |
| · | Either/or |
Early |
| 6 months–1 |
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| responses. |
| questions | ||
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Production |
| year |
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| · | Who … ? | ||
| · | Uses key words |
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| and familiar |
| · | What … ? |
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| phrases. |
| · | How many ... ? |
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| · Uses present-tense |
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| verbs. |
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| The student |
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| · | Has good |
| · | Why … ? |
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| comprehension. |
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| How … ? | |
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| Can produce |
| · | |
| · |
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| Explain … | |
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| simple sentences. |
| · | |
Speech |
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| 1–3 years | · | Questions | |
Emergence | · | Makes grammar | |||
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| requiring | |||
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| and pronunciation |
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| phrase or | |
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| errors. |
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| short-sentence | |
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| Frequently |
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| · |
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| answers | |
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| misunderstands |
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| jokes. |
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| The student |
| · | What would |
Intermediate |
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| happen if … ? | |
| Has excellent | 3–5 years |
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Fluency | · | · | Why do you | ||
| comprehension. |
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| think … ? | |
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| · Makes few |
| · | Questions | |
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| grammatical errors. |
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| requiring more |
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| than a |
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| sentence |
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| response |
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| Advanced | The student has a |
| · | Decide if … |
| near-native level of | 5–7 years | |||
| Fluency |
| Retell … | ||
| speech. |
| · | ||
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Differences between L1 and L2 Acquisition |
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L1 Acquisition |
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1. L1 acquisition is genetically triggered at the most critical stage of the child's cognitive development.
2. The 'engine' of language – its syntactic system – is 'informally encapsulated' – which means that children are not even aware of developing a complex, rule-governed, hierarchical system. Most L1 speakers do not even realise this is what they are using.
3. The L1 is typically acquired at the crucial period of cognitive development; pre-puberty, when L1 and other crucial life-skills are also acquired or learned.
4. Children never resist L1 acquisition, any more than they resist learning to walk.
5. Given even minimal 'input' during critical pre-pubescent development, all humans acquire the L1 of the society or social group they are born into as a natural and essential part of their lives. Even brain-damaged and/or retarded children usually acquire the full grammatical code of the language of their society or social group.
6. In short, the L1 acquisition is an essential, biologically–driven process. It is part of every individual's evolutionary history and development in the most critical stage of that individual's acquisition of essential life skills.
L2 Learning
1. L2 learning is not genetically triggered in any way unless the child grows up bi-lingually (in which case, it is not really L2 learning at all).
2. The syntax of the L2 is not acquired unconsciously, or at least not in the way L1 syntax is acquired. Few L2 learners develop the same degree of unconscious, rule-governed insight into and use of the L2 which they demonstrate with the L1.
3. The L2 is not learned as part of the learner's general cognitive development. It is not an essential life-skill in the same way that the L1 is.
4. There is often great conscious or unconscious resistance to L2 learning.
5. Many highly intelligent individuals with impressive learning skills often have great problems learning an L2. Many L2 learners 'fossilise' at some stage, so that even if they use the L2 regularly, and are constantly exposed to input in it, they fail to develop full grammatical or 'generative' competence.
6. L2 learning is not a biologically-driven process. It is not an essential aspect of an individual's general development especially when the L2 is simply another subject on an already overloaded school curriculum or something that has to be undertaken by people with busy lives and heavy work-loads.
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