Critical Issues in Moral Education

 

COURSE MANUAL 

COURSE CONTENT

COURSE NOTE 

SEXUALITY NOTE

CRITICAL MORAL ISSUES

OVERVIEW

Ghana like most countries in the world are confronted with vices associated with modernization. Daily news reports are bloated with stories of corruption, armed robbery, dishonesty, fraud and so on. The young generation is challenged by the uncertainties of modernity with its resultant breakdown of family systems, disregard for authority, and importation of foreign cultural practices and values, that challenge their moral uprightness on daily basis. Children are also exposed to all types of influences both good and bad and if they do not have proper guidance, they may become morally corrupted. With schools assuming the responsibility of cultural socialization, there is the need for teachers who are well equipped with the skills of teaching morality in the context of an ever changing world. There is the need for a curriculum that will provide students and teachers with comprehensive content knowledge of critical and contemporary issues confronting the Ghanaian society. This course will seek to expose students to contemporary moral issues. Such topics include, but not limited to: bribery and corruption, cyber fraud, teenage pregnancy, euthanasia, suicide, abortion, mob-justice and issues relating to the environment. The purpose is to offer students the opportunity to have an in-depth knowledge of these contemporary moral issues and to apply them in their daily lives and future professions.

UNIT 1: BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION

Definitions

Corruption is a general term for dishonest behaviour involving the abuse of influence by people of power or authority. Bribery is an act of giving, or promising to give or receiving something of value in exchange of an unfair advantage or favour. In other words, bribery is giving or accepting something to illegally or unethically influence a decision and it is the most common form of corruption in Ghana. Example of Bribery is when a construction company gives or promises to give an elected official fifteen percent in kickback money in order to win a large public infrastructure development contract.

 

Causes of Bribery and Corruption

· Poor salaries of most private and public sector workers

When workers are not paid living wages and salaries, they tend to find other unethical or illegal ways to make more money to meet their needs. In Ghana for instance, some public servants have lamented that their salaries do not do much and therefore they are forced to take money from people when they render services that are supposed to be free for the public.

· Perception and an acceptable tradition

Most people believe that “everyone benefits from their workplace” and the society or people could call you names or brand you as a fool when you fail to engage in corrupt schemes at the workplace.

· Prestige associated with wealth/riches

In Ghana, wealth is highly respected and we generally fail to question how the wealthy and famous got rich. For this, there is inherent pressure from family members to be rich irrespective of the source of the wealth, whether genuine or through corrupt means.

· Failure to Prosecute

Most often and sadly so rampant, Ghanaians who engage in corrupt practices are not prosecuted for corruption. Such people are only usually dismissed by their employers. Hence, others are not deterred from involving in corrupt practices.

· It is government funds

Many Ghanaians believe that the government is detached from their personal actions. They generally do not understand that they are part of government and that every citizen is a part of governance. Therefore, they think that corrupt practices like stealing national funds/money and overpricing of public/government contracts do not affect them but government, not realizing the negative consequences on the wellbeing of the nation.

· Other causes include greed, inefficient administrative structures or weak organizational practices and culture, unnecessary higher levels of bureaucracy and weak public institutions.

 

Types of Corruption

Corruption is categorized in different forms or types. The most common types or categories of corruption are supply versus demand corruption, grand versus petty corruption, political corruption, state capture, conventional versus unconventional corruption and public versus private corruption.

· Supply-side corruption is used to describe the act of offering an illicit payment or undue advantage, whereas demand-side corruption relates to the acceptance or solicitation of such a payment or advantage. “Active” and “passive” corruption/bribe are terms that have been used synonymously with supply and demand corruption.

· Conventional corruption occurs when government officials, whether higher or lower ranking, illegitimately receive or accumulate an undue advantage for their own personal use, disregarding public interest. There is an element of reciprocity within conventional corruption: both the solicitation and the acceptance of bribes (supply and demand bribery) are therefore considered forms of conventional corruption. Unconventional corruption exists where a public or government official acts without consideration for the public’s interest, the goal being to attain a specific and personal gain. However, a key element is that no relationship of reciprocity exists, as there is no clear-cut transaction between two parties. This type of corruption includes acts such as misappropriation, theft, embezzlement, and breach of trust.

· Grand and petty corruption are both subcategories of conventional corruption. Petty corruption is sometimes equated with “bureaucratic corruption,” which implies involvement of public administration officials and non-elected officials. Some examples of the use of petty corruption include bribes paid to enforcement officials, customs personnel, health service providers, and other government officials. Facilitation payments, also known as “grease” payments, fall under this category. Grand corruption involves higher ranking government officials and elected officials who exploit opportunities that are presented through government work. It is more often the result of bribes offered or paid in connection with larger scale government projects, such as infrastructure and construction projects.

· Political corruption is considered a type of grand corruption due to its seriousness and the high-ranking level of public officials involved. It exists where politicians and government agents who are entrusted with enforcing laws are themselves corrupt: it occurs at the top levels of government. Another type of grand corruption is “State capture,” which is defined as a company or organization that shapes and influences legislation or government policies in an entire sector (e.g., the extractive and mining industry or taxation) through payments. The opposite effect can also occur, whereby public officials attempt to manipulate actors in the private sector for their own personal gain, also known as “reversed State capture.” State capture has a not-so-distant equivalent known as “influence corruption,” for which the actors and goals are identical. The difference is in the absence of any payment, advantage or transaction ever taking place. In this case, influence is exerted based on the organization’s ability to impact policy as a result of its size, its ownership, or potential ties to, and interactions with state officials.

· Corruption can also be distinguished by its “public” or “private” nature. The difference lies in the sectors in which operate the participants of the illicit act. Public corruption involves a public official (whether domestic or foreign) as one party to the corrupt act, whereas private corruption involves only individuals in the private sector (which is why it is sometimes called “private-to-private corruption”).

                    

Effects of Corruption

Some of the effects of corruption are as follows.

· It causes widespread bitterness in those who cannot pay or refuse to pay for favours, when they see those who do pay being favoured.

· Corruption also enriches a few corrupt people at the expense of the majority.

· It distorts standards when it enables those who less deserve to reach goals ahead of those of greater merit.

· It enables those who pay bribes to obtain favours and services to which they are not entitled.

· When bribes are paid to law enforcement officers, respect for the law and rule of law is lost.

· It retards economic development as it shifts services from the needy or priority areas. It furthers the social and economic marginalization of the poor.

· If allowed to expand unchecked, corruption erodes political legitimacy to the point where citizens see little point in following the rules and might result into political instability.

· It weakens democratic institutions, perverts the rule of law, discourages investment and aid.

· Reduces public confidence in government officials.

 

Ways to Control Corruption

Countries like Germany, Canada, Singapore, UK and the US have made significant progress in curbing corruption. Yet, most African countries, like Ghana, are struggling to address or deal with this social or national canker called corruption. Some of the control measures we can adopt to drastically minimize or eliminate corruption are the following.

· Report corrupt practices to the appropriate institutions. By making a complaint you can help expose public or private sector workers’ corruption and help keep these workers honest, transparent and accountable.

· Posters, videos and banners should be available in organizations, social media and on our streets to help raise awareness of bribery and corruption risks to discourage such behaviour and practices.

· Effective law enforcement as well as strong institutions is essential to ensure that corrupt persons are punished and break the cycle of impunity, or freedom from punishment or loss. Successful enforcement approaches are supported by a strong legal framework, law enforcement branches and an independent and effective court system.

· Public administration and financial management reforms. There should be changes in public administration and financial management laws to strengthen the role of auditing agencies.

· Transparency and access to information should be promoted. Countries successful at curbing corruption have a long tradition of government openness, freedom of the press, transparency and access to information. Access to information increases the responsiveness of government bodies, while simultaneously having a positive effect on the levels of public participation in a country.

 UNIT 2: CYBER FRAUD/GAMBLING

Cyber fraud is a general concept or term which describes crimes that are committed by cyber (online/virtual) attackers. It is also the use of the internet to get money, goods, etc. from people illegally by tricking or deceiving them. Cyber fraudsters target rich people or rich organizations like banks, casinos, and financial firms where a huge amount of money flows daily and hack people’s credit cards and sensitive information of organizations. The attackers are usually individuals who are good at using some computer skills and its programming. The internet has made it possible for cyber frauds to be committed with the click of a button. Internet crimes can happen anytime, anywhere and could have devastating consequences. These crimes are committed with the intent to illegally acquire and leverage an individual's or business's sensitive information for monetary gain.

 

Causes of Cyber Fraud

Some causes of cyber fraud include;

· Lack of security assistance.

It is often difficult or impossible to safeguard an online activity or a system from data breaches that involve complex technologies. Security can only be compromised when the online system is easy to access by fraudsters and hackers. Skilled online fraudsters or hackers can get unauthorized access by breaching passwords, pins of electronic cards, access codes, retina images, voice recognition, etc. They can easily fool the biometric system and pass through the firewall of the system.

· Negligence

Most people fail to be careful when they are online. Negligence is one of the characteristics of human conduct and that could provide cyber fraudsters access and control over the internet or computer system. Hence, it is necessary to remain vigilant about the happenings in your online activities or in your computer system.

· System vulnerabilities

When cyber fraudsters spot an internet user’s weakness, they pounce on it which can temporarily block a website or worst, lead to a full security breach, computer crimes or cyber terrorism. System vulnerabilities can be so dangerous.

· Poor internet risk assessment

Cyber criminals want us to underestimate the risk of cyberattacks and the consequences of cyber fraud. The more we underestimate, the easier things are for them. Unfortunately, most people’s ability to calculate risk is poor and so they become highly vulnerable to online fraudsters.

· Complex coding

Operating systems make computers functional, and these operating systems are created with millions of codes. Operating systems are programmed by developers who are humans, thereby making the codes susceptible to errors. Though the slightest loop in the codes might not make a big difference in the functions of the operating system, these gaps can be easily exploited by the experienced and skilful cyber fraudsters. They can slip in through these loopholes and make the operating system malicious for the users. Complex coding can often become the common cause of cybercrimes.

 Types of Cyber Fraud

As the number of online fraud cases grow by the day, here is a list of the types of cyber fraud to be aware of.

· Unauthorized fraudulent payment

Unauthorised fraudulent payments are attacks that include fraudulent activities such as the unauthorised transfer of funds from an individual's or company's account. Under this type, fraudsters pretend to give technical support. The cyber fraudsters pose as representatives of legitimate tech companies. They might reach you via phone or email, claiming that your computer has some sort of issue. The fraudster will then ask for remote access to your device to “fix” the issue. In doing so, they can steal your personal information and financial credentials. They might also charge you a fee for this service. In addition, a cyber-fraudster can take over your mobile phone number in a SIM swap scam. They will pose as you and convince your wireless provider to transfer your number to a new SIM card they control. Once they have access to your phone number, they can access all your phone numbers, text messages, and any two-factor authentication linked to your number. They can then use this information to commit fraud, such as accessing bank accounts or credit cards.

· Account Takeover

One of the more significant and damaging types of cyber fraud is account takeover. In this type of online scam, the scammer gains access to your bank or credit card account by posing as you and providing enough personal information to pass security measures. They will answer all your security questions and change your pin codes / login information. As a result, they can potentially drain your account or make unauthorized transactions. In the worst case, they may also take out loans in your name.

· Phishing

It is one of the oldest and most successful methods to commit cyber fraud. Under this, fraudsters will send you emails or texts posing as a legitimate institution, such as your bank. They will request you for your personal information or login details after which you will be directed towards fake websites to gain access to your financial accounts.

· Pharming/man-in-the-middle

Another phishing-related cyber fraud is man-in-the-middle or pharming attacks. Here, the cyber fraudster will insert themselves between the victim and a legitimate institution. For instance, they might intercept your communication or redirect you to a different website and gain access to your login information or any other personal information. This type of fraud can be more damaging as it often goes unnoticed until it is too late.

· Investment Scams

This type of scams involves fraudsters convincing victims to invest in “lifetime” opportunities by promising high returns with little risk. As lack of regulation allows for more room for fraud, cryptocurrency market has proven to be a breeding ground for such types of frauds.

· Push payment social engineering

In this type of fraud, the scammer will persuade the victim to voluntarily send them money through social engineering tactics. These can range from posing as a government agency to impersonating a family member.

· Romance Scams

In this type of scam, the fraudster will create a fake social media profile and start an online relationship with the victim. Ultimately, they will convince them to send money. They may start by catfishing, using a fake identity and photos, and then gradually gaining the victim’s trust over time. These types of scams can result not only in financial losses but also in emotional trauma for the victim.

 

Effects of Cyber Fraud

The effects of cyber fraud include the following.

· Financial losses to victims and organizations

Cyber frauds can result in various financial losses to people and businesses. These include the cost of mitigating the breach, such as hiring experts to investigate and repair the damage, notifying customers, and settling legal claims. Cyber frauds can also lead to lost revenue from delayed or cancelled projects and reputational damage if sensitive customer data is compromised. Companies may also face hefty fines from government regulators if they fail to meet minimum security requirements. In extreme cases, a cyber-fraud could even cause businesses to close.

· Loss of Customer Trust

A business’s customers may no longer feel safe trusting a company with their sensitive information due to a cyber-breach, and may choose to take their business or patronage elsewhere. The company may also suffer negative publicity that can damage its reputation, leading to lost customers and revenue.

· Death of victims

Victims can suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression, leading to suicidal tendencies and death.

· Infrastructural damage

Cyber fraud also poses a significant threat to infrastructure in society. Cyber fraudsters can break into systems that control infrastructure like health, electricity, air and road traffics, take total control of these and endanger millions of lives.

 

Ways to Control Cyber Fraud

The following are some control measures.

· Use strong password.

Ensure you maintain multiple passwords for different accounts or electronic cards to avoid becoming an easy target. Also, ensure you do not write them down anywhere, as this makes it all easier for cyber fraudsters to get their hands on and exploit the same. Also, ensure you keep changing the passwords frequently to avoid becoming an easy target.

· Safeguard your storage data

Stealing data or information is the main cause of any form of hacking. Therefore, it is important that you encrypt all your data to prevent any and every kind of attack on your online system or database, as this could prove fatal to your privacy.

· Protect you phone or computer system.

Physical equipment is ideally the target for malicious attacks. Phones and computers alike are always under the threat of being affected by these malware attacks. Therefore, ensure you always download your software and tools from trusted and reliable sources. Also, ensure your operating systems are always up to date.

· Use appropriate security software

The only way to prevent and protect resources from any kind of invasion is by enabling the right protection. The same applies to phones and computers as well. Ensure you have the right security software in place to avoid any and every security-related complication.

· Contact the appropriate people for help

Never take too much time to reach out for help. There are professionals who are skilled and equipped to help you prevent further damage and protect as much data as possible after an attack. Do reach out to them in time to prevent any further data harm.

· Be social media savvy

Be sure to keep your social networking profiles (Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, etc.) set to private. Be sure to check your security settings frequently. Be careful of what information you post online. Once it is on the Internet it is there forever.

 UNIT 3: SEXUAL ABUSE

Sexual abuse, also known as molestation, occurs when there is abusive sexual behaviour by one person on another. It is often perpetrated using force or by taking advantage of another. Molestation often refers to an instance of sexual assault against a small child, whereas sexual abuse is a term used for a persistent pattern of sexual assaults. Sexual abuse include seduction, rape, defilement, sexual harassment and these could lead to teenage pregnancy, abortion and death of innocent young people, particularly young girls. Seduction is the enticement of a person to sexual intercourse. The English word “seduce” is derived from the Latin word seducere, which means “to lead astray.” We all have an inner desire to be seduced, to be drawn out of our dull routines and into an erotic drama of imagination and possibility.

To be seduced is not necessarily to fall in love, but seduction can set the stage for a more traditional and lasting relationship. Older people entice young people, particularly poor young girls, with material things, false promises, persuasion, sexual scripts, etc. These adults build anticipation, mystery and charm in order to lure innocent young people into sexual activities. Rape is when a person intentionally or forcibly penetrates another's vagina, anus or mouth with a penis, without the other person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability, or is below the legal age of consent. Lack of consent is key to the definition of rape.

Consent is affirmative "informed approval, indicating a freely given agreement" to sexual activity. The age of consent, varies in different countries and regions. This sexual assault or abuse can cause severe distress, emotional harm, pregnancy, STIs, unsafe abortion and injuries to their victims, all of which can take a long time to recover from. Some types of rape include acquaintance rape (which is a non-domestic rape committed by someone who knows the victim), gang rape (when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim), marital rape or spousal rape, rape of children, prison rape, serial rape (rape committed by a person over a relatively long period of time and committed on a number of victims), payback or revenge rape, among others.

In Ghana, rape is the carnal knowledge of a female of more than 16 years without her consent and whoever commits rape shall be guilty of first degree felony and upon conviction shall be liable to a term between 5 to 25 years in prison (The Criminal Offences Act or Penal Codes of 1960, Act 29). Defilement is any sexual intercourse with a child under the age of consent, whether or not the child consents to the activity. In Ghana, defilement is the natural or unnatural carnal knowledge of a child under 16 years with or without his or her consent and whoever commits defilement shall be guilty of first degree felony and upon conviction shall be liable to a term between 7 to 25 years in prison.

Sexual harassment is any unwanted verbal and non-verbal sexual behaviour that makes someone feel upset, scared, offended or humiliated, or is meant to make them feel that way. It involves the use of explicit or implicit sexual overtones, including the unwelcome and inappropriate promises of rewards in exchange for sexual favours. Harassment can occur in many different social settings such as the workplace, the home, school, or religious institutions. Very Often, the perpetrator has or is about to have power or authority over the victim (owing to differences in social, political, educational or employment relationships as well as in age). Examples of sexual harassment include unwanted touching or physical contact, unwelcome sexual advances, unwanted sexually explicit pictures, emails or text messages, exposing oneself sexually, request for sexual favours, discussing sexual fantasies, etc. Victims may be of any sex or gender.

Teenage pregnancy also known as adolescent pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female adolescent under the age of 20. This includes those who are legally considered adults in their country. The WHO defines adolescence as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years. Teenage pregnancies are related to social issues, including lower educational levels and poverty. The causes also include lack of information about sexual and reproductive health and rights, inadequate access to services tailored to young people, family, community and social pressure to marry, sexual violence, child, early and forced marriage, lack of education or school drop-out. Adolescent pregnancy remains a major contributor to maternal and child mortality. Complications relating to pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of death for girls aged 15-19 globally.

Pregnant girls and adolescents also face other health risks and complications due to their immature bodies. Babies born to younger mothers are also at greater risk. For many adolescents, pregnancy and childbirth are neither planned, nor wanted. In countries where abortion is prohibited or highly restricted, adolescents typically resort to unsafe abortion, putting their health and lives at risk. Adolescent pregnancy can also have negative social and economic effects on girls, their families and communities. Unmarried pregnant adolescents may face stigma or rejection by parents and peers as well as threats of violence. Girls who become pregnant before age 18 are also more likely to experience violence within a marriage or partnership. For adolescents who are sexually active, using effective contraceptives (such as condoms, birth control pills, the patch, the vaginal ring, the intrauterine device or IUD, and/or injectable birth control methods) every time they have sexual intercourse will reduce chances of unwanted pregnancy.

Abortion is when a pregnancy is ended so that it does not result in the birth of a child. Sometimes it is called 'termination of pregnancy. The two main types of abortion are induced abortion and spontaneous abortion (miscarriage). Induced abortion is the termination of pregnancy using drugs or surgical intervention after implantation and before the embryo or foetus has become independently viable. Induced abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by artificial means. Governments can be permissive or restrictive in their legislation regulating this type of abortion. Induced abortion is legal in some countries but in others too, there are no clear laws regulating such kind of abortion. Although women of all types use abortion services, women seeking abortions tend to be young, poor and unmarried mothers. Spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or foetus before the 24th week of gestation.

 UNIT 4: HOMOSEXTUALITY

Homosexuality, is a sexual orientation where there is sexual interest in and attraction to members of one’s own sex. The term gay is frequently used as a synonym for homosexuality; female homosexuality is often referred to as lesbianism. At different times and in different cultures, homosexual behaviour has been variously approved of, tolerated, punished, and banned. That is, different societies respond differently to homosexuality. Scientists do not yet know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences and do not view it as a choice.

Attitudes toward homosexuality are generally in flux, partially as a result of increased political activism and efforts by homosexuals to be seen not as aberrant personalities but as differing from “normal” individuals only in their sexual orientation. The conflicting views of homosexuality - as a variant but normal human sexual behaviour on one hand, and as psychologically deviant behaviour on the other - remain present in most societies in the 21st century, but they have been largely resolved (in the professional sense) in most developed countries. The American Psychiatric Association, for example, declassified “ego-syntonic homosexuality” (the condition of a person content with his or her homosexuality) as a mental illness in 1973. Nonetheless, some religious groups continue to emphasize reparative therapy in the attempt to “cure” homosexuality through prayer, counselling, and behaviour modification. Their claims of success, however, are controversial. Wherever opinion can be freely expressed, debates about homosexuality will likely continue.

As indicated, different societies respond differently to homosexuality. In most of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, both the subject and the behaviour are considered taboo, with some slight exception made in urban areas. In Western countries, attitudes were somewhat more liberal. Although the topic of homosexuality was little discussed in the public forum during the early part of the 20th century, it became a political issue in many Western countries during the late 20th century. This was particularly true in the United States, where the gay rights movement is often seen as a late offshoot of various civil rights movements of the 1960s. After the 1969 Stonewall riots, in which New York City policemen raided a gay bar and met with sustained resistance, many homosexuals were emboldened to identify themselves as gay men or lesbians to friends, to relatives, and even to the public at large.

In much of North America and western Europe, the heterosexual population became aware of gay and lesbian communities for the first time. Many gay men and lesbians began to demand equal treatment in employment practices, housing, and public policy. In response to their activism, many jurisdictions enacted laws banning discrimination against homosexuals, and an increasing number of employers in America and European countries agreed to offer “domestic partner” benefits similar to the health care, life insurance and, in some cases, pension benefits available to heterosexual married couples. Although conditions for gay people had generally improved in most of Europe and North America at the turn of the 21st century, elsewhere in the world violence against gay people continued. In Namibia, for example, police officers were instructed to “eliminate” homosexuals. Gay students at Jamaica’s Northern Caribbean University were beaten, and an anti-gay group in Brazil by the name of Acorda Coracao (“Wake Up, Dear”) was blamed for murdering several gay people.

Even in parts of the world where physical violence is absent, intolerance of homosexuality often persists. One of the issues that loomed largest for gay men in the last two decades of the 20th century and beyond was AIDS. Elsewhere in the world AIDS was transmitted principally by heterosexual sex, but in the United States and in some European centres it was particularly prevalent in urban gay communities. Lesbianism, Gayism, Bisexualism, Transgenderism, Queerism and more (LGBTQ+), describe some people’s sexual orientation or gender identity. Lesbianism, is the practice where a woman whose enduring physical, romantic, and emotional attraction is to other women. Some lesbians may prefer to identify as gay or as gay women. Gayism is the orientation which describes men whose enduring physical, romantic, and emotional attractions are to other men. The term is also used to refer to both males and females who are attracted to same sex or gender.

Bisexualism is the orientation of an individual who can form enduring physical, romantic, and emotional attractions to those of the same gender or more than one gender. Some people may experience this attraction in differing ways and degrees over their lifetime. Bisexual people need not have had specific sexual experiences to be bisexual; they need not have had any sexual experience at all to identify as bisexual. Transgenderism is the orientation or umbrella term that describes people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from what is typically associated with the sex or gender they were assigned at birth.

People under the transgender umbrella may describe themselves using one or more of a wide variety of terms - including transgender or nonbinary. Some transgender people are prescribed hormones by their doctors to bring their bodies into alignment with their gender identity. Some undergo surgery as well. But not all transgender people can or will take those steps, and a transgender identity is not dependent upon physical appearance or medical procedures. Queerism describes people whose sexual orientation is not exclusively heterosexual or straight. This umbrella term includes people who have nonbinary, gender-fluid, or gender nonconforming identities. Once considered a pejorative term, queer has been reclaimed by some LGBTQ+ people to describe themselves; however, it is not a universally accepted term even within the LGBTQ+ community.