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FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL STUDIES AND TVET
RATIONALE FOR THE INTEGRATION OF SOCIAL STUDIES, GEOGRAPHY AND TECHNICAL, VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING (SSGHTVET) SUBJECTS
THE NATURE OF SSGHTVET AS A COURSE
Today, the opportunity has come to fine-tune our curricula, for Initial Teacher Education (ITE), transforming them by using the National Teacher Education Curriculum Framework (NTECF) to prepare student teachers who are adequately skilled and motivated to provide quality education for all. The current Social Studies, Geography and TVET curriculum is designed to meet the National Teachers’ Standards (NTS) and also enable student teachers acquire pedagogical content knowledge and skills that measure up to global standards.
The Social Studies, Geography, History and TVET curriculum is intended to enable student-teachers appreciate the interconnectedness of these subjects and develop knowledge, understanding, skills and competencies through a combination of social constructivism and social realism. In learning this unique integrated course, student-teachers are expected to acquire pedagogical content knowledge and skills that will help them teach their learners to demonstrate competencies in making independent and healthy choices regarding personal development and well-being, develop the awareness of the people in their immediate environment and the wider community and society, take responsibility for the climate and the environment, appreciate the richness and diversity of Ghana’s culture and willingness to take advantage of social changes relating to globalisation, technological advancement and digital literacy. Student-teachers are to be guided to maximise the opportunities offered by new technologies to express their beliefs and further enhance their moral perspectives and values
To meet the NTECF’s weighting requirements; Social Studies, Geography, History and the Technical, Vocational Education and Training (SSGHTVET) subjects have been integrated - as a 3 credit SUBJECT DISCIPLINE to ensure that ITE trainees appreciate the interrelatedness of these subjects and how to teach them at the basic and senior high schools in Ghana. For instance, the course provides opportunity for student teachers to learn how geographical, historical, and socio-cultural contexts influence technical and vocational skills and competences acquired by learners. The SSGHTVET course is core for year one student teachers in the first semester of their four year B.ED programme. As a core/foundation course, student-teachers are expected to obtain a pass grade in it before they can progress in their training regardless of their areas of specialism.
Why Integrate Social studies, Geography, History, Technical, Vocational education and Training (SSGHTVET)?
Integration of SSGHTVET derives its rationale from the Gestalt learning theory, which postulates that young children naturally perceive their environment holistically, rather than in bits and pieces or of various components. Thus, children learn better when they are assisted to learn the inter relatedness among the various disciplines.
The integration of the content of SSGHTVET will ensure acquisition of integrated body of content knowledge by student teachers to enable them teach the subject “our world our people” at the early grade and upper primary levels of our educational system. The focus of this integration is to create awareness of the interplay of Social Studies, Geography, History, and TVET. Social Studies focuses on socio-cultural and economic challenges, history focuses on past of the people and communities while geography deals with space and time with emphasis on responsible use of resources. The TVET aspect of the course is intended to equip the student teacher with knowledge and pedagogical skills as well as the attitude to teach learners to acquire employable skills for independent living. The interplay within SSGHTVET is very important for the holistic understanding of the current socio-economic and environmental problems confronting us as a nation and how these can be effectively tackled to promote an inclusive and productive environment for all citizens.
The role of tutors in the teaching of SSGHTVET
Currently, there are no tutors specifically trained to teach an integrated subject like SSGHTVET. However, this can be done through team teaching involving tutors with specialisations in the respective subjects (i.ee social studies, geography, History and TVET). The teaching of SSGHTVET should emphasize on inter-relatedness of these subjects and the implications for teaching at the basic school level
CONCEPTS ON SOCIAL STUDIES
Lesson 1. Understanding oneself and family systems.
1. What is the self-concept -The physical self
- Psychological
- Social Use concept map to explain
2. Self-identity – how one person perceives him/ herself in relation to society - The ideal self
3.The other self - The real self - The real other
FAMILY
The family as a system is the basic family unit i.e. a couple and their children Using the concentric approach to link the individual, family, school and community
Family system – a collective system of various family units, i.e. the nuclear and extended families.
Ø Nuclear family
- Dyed family
- Step/ blended family
Ø Extended family
- Compound family – a combination of nuclear families or parts of them such as a polygynous home consisting of one man, his wives and their respective children.
- Collateral extended family comprises immediate and extended family members such as parents, grandparents, siblings, uncles etc.
Links and connections between the individual, family, school and community.
UNIT TWO
Core competencies, values and decision making.
These guiding principles dictate behaviour and help people distinguish between what is right and wrong for example honesty, etc.
Core competencies- they are the resources and capabilities that are inherent in an individual.
They are defining characteristics that make an individual stand out from others (uniqueness eg, critical and analytical conflict resolution, creative thinking evaluation skills, etc.
Decision- making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values, preferences and beliefs of the decision maker.
Similarities between CORE VALUES and CORE COMPETENCIES
1. Both are inherent in the individual
2. Can be inculcated into individual through socialization.
3. Both are cherished and promote community development.
Differences
1. Values are intangible while competencies are tangible
2. CC are capabilities while values are beliefs.
3. CV are easy to imitate while CC are difficult to imitate
THE PLACE OF VALUES AND COMPETENCIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDES AND DECISION MAKING
-Core values dictate behavior and can help people understand the differences between right and wrong
-Makes decision making easy
-They help the individual to collaborate with others to make decisions that will inure to the good of the public
-They help in the growth and development of an individual to identify others who will support him/ her aspiration and objectives
THE PLACE OF CORE VALUES AND COMPETENCIES IN THE COMMUNITY ACTION AND DEVELOPMENT
CV of patriotism and CC of critical and analytical thinking will help identifying community problems and find workable solutions to them
Honesty, loyalty, collaboration, hard work will contribute pooling and to the judicious use of community resources for development
IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE OF CORE VALUES AND COMPETENCIES TO TEACHING
They help student transmit the core values and competencies to pupils
The students teacher will serve as a role model for the learner to emulate
Help leaners to acquire values and competencies to make informed decisions
SOCIAL STUDIES
It is citizenship education
It seeks to equip the learner the relevant knowledge, skills, positive attitudes and values to solve personal and societal problems (ovarty, 1984)
Characteristic/ uniqueness
1. It is an integrated subject
2. It focuses on problem-solving
3. It deals with the relationship between man and his environment. It is a multi-disciplinary approach.
4. Makes the leaner holistic in nature
Importance Social Studies
1. Makes learners tolerant and broad-minded
2. Makes learners patriotic citizens
3. Makes people good leaders followers
4. Learners identify and solve personal and societal problems
5. Helps maintain an inter-group understanding
Implications for teaching the basic school
1. Acquisition of integrated body of knowledge to enable them to teach in a holistic manner
2. Creates in learners the interplay between SS and TVET
3. Gives a holistic understanding of socio-economic and environmental issues to learners
CONCEPTS ON VISUAL ARTS
What is Visual Art
It is the study of and creation of symbolic and/or realistic creative expressions using visual imagery to communicate personal, cultural, historical and/or universal thoughts, ideas, feelings and beliefs to satisfy the human need. They include Picture Making, Ceramics and pottery, Sculpture, Textiles, jewelry, Leatherwork, Graphic Design etc. that can evoke emotional aesthetic and intellectual responses.
Branches/Areas of Visual Arts
• Picture Making: it is a two-dimensional (2-D) art in the form of pictures using a variety of tools, techniques and styles. It includes drawing and colouring, painting, collage, mosaic, photomontage, photography and other digital imagery etc.
• Ceramics and pottery: Artworks made out of clay and then ‘fired’ to make them permanent.
They can be two-dimensional (2-D) or three-dimensional. Some examples are earthen bowls, mugs, flower vases etc.
• Sculpture: A three-dimensional work of art either in the round (to be viewed from all sides) or in bas relief (low relief in which figures protrude slightly from the background). Examples of sculpture works include, statues made by modelling /casting, carved objects from wood/metal/stone etc., Assemblage and Construction items are made by gluing / nailing / welding / knotting / tying / riveting etc.
• Textiles: textile design is essentially the process of creating designs for woven knitted or printed fabrics or surface ornamented fabrics. The fabrics are produced by weaving, printing, knotting, crocheting etc.
• Jewelry: Designing and making small decorative items worn for personal adornment such as broaches, rings, necklaces, ear rings etc.
• Leatherwork: The art of preparing animal skins and hides into leather and using appropriate tools and materials to produce leather articles. Leather items include footwear, belts, purses, hand bags, drums, etc.
• Graphic Design: a two-dimensional art made by combining letters, symbols, words, pictures, and decorations as a means of communicating to the general public or a group of people. Examples of graphic design items include posters, banners, flyers, billboards, magazines etc.
Uniqueness of visual arts:
- Goes by artistic, mathematical and scientific principles.
- It is practical (manipulative and tactile activities)
- It also involves:
✓ Creativity and innovation.
✓ Critical thinking and problem solving.
✓ Experimenting, investigating, exploring, inventing, designing.
✓ Creative and aesthetic experiences.
✓ Curiosity and perceptual awareness. Etc.
Importance of visual Arts:
- A source of employment and income earning
- It beautifies the environment
- It gives us joy and sometimes used as a therapy
- It improves our creative skills
- It helps us to communicate with one another.
- It helps in the expression of emotions.
- It helps to improve one’s confidence level.
- It helps to preserve, sustain and transmit cultures .etc.
Interrelatedness of visual arts and social studies:
- Both social studies and visual arts identify and solve societal problems
- The types of artifacts made or produced depict the way of life of a particular group of people.
- Social studies and visual arts are inseparable because the society totally depend on the products or visual arts for survival and everyday activities. For example, clothes, footwear, cooking pots, mugs etc.
- Both ensure the socio-cultural and economic development of a nation.
- Social studies and visual arts promote civilization and modernization of cultures, societies and countries due to technological and artistic advancement.
Implications for teaching visual arts in the basic schools:
- Knowledge and skills acquired will enable the student teacher to effectively teach other integrated subjects in the basic school curriculum.
- It will also help erase the misconceptions of Social Studies and TVET
Art Related Careers
A
1) Advertising Consultant
2) Aerial Photographer
3) Animation Artist (Animator)
4) Anthropologist
5) Archaeologist
6) Architect
7) Archivist
8) Art Administrator
9) Art Collector
10) Art Consultant
11) Art Critic
12) Art Director
13) Art Educator
14) Art Historian
15) Art Therapist
B
16) Bookbinder
17) Book Illustrator
C
18) Calligrapher
19) Cartoonist
20) Ceramic Artist
21) Cinematographer
22) Colour Psychologist
23) Comic Strip Artist
24) Computer Animator
25) Computer game designer
26) Computer-aided designer
27) Computer Scientist
28) Costumer
29) Criminal Investigator
30) Curator
D
31) Digital Imaging
E
32) Editorial Cartoonist
33) Engraver
34) Environmental Artist
35) Event Promoter
36) Exhibition Designer
37) Exterior Decorator
F
38) Fashion Designer
39) Film Editor/maker
40) Floral Designer
41) Forensic Sketch Artist
42) Furniture Designer
G
43) Gallery Owner
44) Graphic Designer
I
45) Industrial Designer
46) Interior Designer/decorator
J
47) Jewellery Designer
L
48) Landscape Architect
49) Layout Artist
50) Leather Artist
51) Legal Practitioner
52) Lithographer
M
53) Makeup Artist
54) Medical Illustrator
55) Metal-smith
56) Millinery Designer
57) Mosaic Artist
58) Muralist
59) Museum Director/Curator
60) Museum Educator
P
61) Package Designer
62) Page Designer
63) Painter
64) Papermaker
65) Photographer
66) Photojournalist
67) Portrait Artist
68) Printing Technologist
69) Product Designer
70) Publisher
S
71) Sculptor
72) Shoe and Footwear Designer
73) Silkscreen Artist
74) Stage Designer
75) Storyboard Technician
T
76) Textile Designer
77) Tourism Developer
78) Toy Designer
79) Typographer
U
80) Upholsterer
81) Videographer
82) Visualizer
W
82) Weaver
83) Web designer
CONCEPT ON AGRICULTURE
Meaning of Agriculture
The term “agriculture” was derived from two Latin words “ager” meaning field and “cultura” meaning cultivation. Literally, agriculture means field cultivation.
Agriculture is the cultivation of crops and the rearing of farm animals for human’s use, and the disposal of these products through marketing.
There is always confusion between farming and agriculture. The difference between the two is that farming concerns itself with only on-farm activities whilst agriculture deals with both on-farm and off-farm activities.
Uniqueness of Agriculture
-The history of the development of the human race is closely related to that of agricultural development.
-It is practical in nature and aims at solving the problems of humans
Categories of Agriculture
1. Production agriculture – directly involved in on-farm activities.
2. Agriculture profession – not directly involved in the on-farm activities. E.g. agriculture extension services, agriculture researching, teaching etc.
Branches of Agriculture
1. Animal science - this is concerned with the rearing and management of farm animals.
2. Crop science - deals with the study of crops, their management, harvesting and storage.
3. Soil science - is the study of the classification, survey, conservation and management of the soil for crop and animal production.
4. Agricultural mechanization – is the branch of agriculture that deals with the study and operations of agricultural machinery, tools and equipment, together with the development of improved implements and equipment.
5. Horticulture – is the branch of agriculture that deals with the study of the cultivation of fruits (pomology), vegetables (olericulture) and ornamental plants.
6. Forestry – is the science that deals with the study of forest resources, their management and conservation.
7. Wildlife and range management – is usually closely associated with forestry. It is concerned with the study of wildlife resources in the forest ecosystem.
8. Fisheries – is the study of the wildlife resources in the aquatic ecosystem.
9. Agricultural economics – is the study and the application of economic principles in agriculture.
10. Agriculture and rural sociology (extension) - is concerned with the development and dissemination of agricultural information and the transfer of technology, as well as the lifestyles of rural farming populations.
11. Agronomy – deals with the inter-relationship and inter-dependencies of crops and soils.
12. Pathology – deals with the study of diseases affecting plants and animals and their control.
13. Entomology – deals with the study of insect pests and their management.
14. Agriculture research – deals with the development of new ideas, innovations and technologies by means of scientific studies and experiments.
15. Agriculture education and teaching – deals with the teaching of agriculture science in schools and institutions.
Importance of Agriculture
Supply of food for the people
Supply of raw materials for industries
Provision of jobs and employment opportunities
Provision of foreign exchange to countries (governments) Source of income for farmers
Source of drugs and medicine
Promotion of cooperation among members and communities
The interrelatedness of Agriculture and Social Studies
1. Agriculture determines the culture of a group of people. For instance, Ghanaian society is said to be agrarian in the sense that, the majority of the people are involved in agriculture.
2. The culture of a group of people determines the farming system of a place i.e. the type of crops and animals cultivated and reared respectively, and how it is done.
3. The types of crops cultivated determine the stable food of a group of people, which is an aspect of culture.
4. In areas where animal rearing is common, animals are used as a dowry.
5. Festivals are normally celebrated to appreciate a bumper harvest.
6. Subsistence farmers produce food for their families. Sometimes excess foodstuffs produced are sold to earn income for the farmers and farm families.
7. Young people in tropical countries receive formal education and training which provides them with career opportunities such as agricultural researchers, journalists, teachers etc.
8. The land tenure system of a place influences the political system and that also influence the farming system.
9. Horticulture, which is a branch of agriculture beautifies the environment. Trees also purify the air which makes it safe for breathing.
Strength of Agriculture as a Vocation for all
It is estimated that about 60% of the Ghanaian population is involved in Agriculture, providing permanent and casual jobs for the majority of the people.
The value chain of agriculture which entails research, production, processing and marketing offer job opportunities for both able and “disabled” members of society.
Some careers/occupations in agriculture include;
Agricultural product processing and marketing Ornamental horticulture
Agricultural extension workers
Agricultural research workers Soil conservationist
The implication of teaching agriculture as part of SS and TVET
CONCEPTS ON HOME ECONOMICS
What is Home Economics
It is a field of study that deals with the relationship between individuals, families, communities and the environment in which they live. It is also seen as the science and art of homemaking.
Domains
1. Nutrition
2. Clothing and Textiles
3. Entrepreneurship and Costing
4. Population and Family Life Education
5. Catering and Hospitality
6. Management in Living
7. Fashion and designing
8. Consumer Education
Importance of Home Economics
1. It gives people the opportunity to pursue higher education and vocational training
2. It teaches people of all gender important life skills eg, cooking, sewing, resource management.
3. It helps individuals to run home well and effectively.
4. It helps to build the family
5. It helps to improve quality of life because the family is the basic unit of society
6. It shapes people’s personality, perspective and view of life
7. Nation-building: health of the family is fundamental to the growth and development of society.
8. It raises the standard of living by providing a source of livelihood and contributing to societal development.
9. It promotes practical skills for daily living
10. It enhances productivity through training in the various areas
11. It reduces the burden of unemployment
The Uniqueness
1. Practical oriented
2. Enhances creativity and innovation
3. Multidisciplinary because it draws knowledge from other disciplines
4. It develops people to function well in the world of work and in their personal life.
5. It is an applied science because it applies the principles of science
6. It helps them to make informed decisions and choices in relation to organizations in their lives
7. Advocacy to Government, Industry and Community to enhance wellbeing
8. Help learners to develop productive hobbies (crocheting, sewing, embroidery) that make them earn extra income apart from their major source of income.
Interrelatedness to Social Studies
1. Both deal with the interrelationship between individuals
2. They deal with the individual, families and societies
3. Satisfies the need of society
4. Reduces unemployment
5. Helps to make judicious use of resources
Career opportunities
1. Teaching/ Lecturing
2. Catering
3. Fashion Designing
4. Chefs and Head Chefs
5. Dieticians/Nutritionist
6. Child care Workers
7. Research Scientists
8. Food Technology
9. Budget Analyst
10. Tailoring and Dressmaking
11. Interior Decorating.
Aspects
1. Food and Nutrition: It is the scientific study of food nutrients and their relationship with body functioning. It seeks to prevent diseases and promote health through the intake of balanced and safe foods that enhance the total well-being of individuals and the population at large. Some of the areas dealt with in this subject includes Nutrients, hygiene, kitchen safety, catering equipment, methods of cooking, meal planning, food preservation and the management of catering enterprises.
2. Clothing and Textiles: it is the scientific study of the production and use of textile fibres and fabrics and the various textiles products, their care and maintenance and how these products get to the consumer. Topics include; fibres, fabrics, stitches, seams, sewing equipment, the importance of sewing, clothing and accessories.
3. Management in Living: It is the application of management principles to everyday living. It involves decisions individuals and families make as they go through their lives in order to achieve goals. It exposes people to knowledge on the types of family, decision making, credit management, types of resources, workflow, communication, etc.
Implication SSTVET in the Basic School Curriculum
1. Require a collaboration among all the subjects involved
2. It will help the student teacher to appreciate the need for integration between these areas.
3. Help students to gain a holistic understanding of SSTVET and approach it with the needed attention.
4. Establish the relationship between all the areas involved and identify areas that need improvement
CONCEPTS ON TECHNICAL SKILLS
What Is Technical Skill
It is the application of scientific principles to equip the individual with skills, attitude, values, knowledge and understanding to enable the individual to function in the world of work. Technical skills are the abilities and knowledge needed to perform a specific task. Pre-Technical skills, therefore, mean the knowledge or skills one needs to prepare him/her to acquire advanced knowledge of an engineering or scientific subject. Pre-technical skills are one of the subjects on the Junior High School (J.H.S) curriculum. Technical skills are abilities, knowledge, attitude, values that an individual acquired through practice and learning.
ASPECTS OF TECHNICAL SKILL
Aspects of technical skills include:
Ø Graphic Communication,
Ø Woodwork (Wood technology),
Ø Metalwork (Metal technology),
Ø Blockwork (Building construction technology),
Ø Electronic/Electrical work (Electronic/Electrical technology).
WOODWORK (WOOD TECHNOLOGY)
Woodwork provides important knowledge in the art and craft of woodworking and further provides the learner with the basic and necessary skills for work in the wood-based industries. It is the trade or skills of using wood and wood products in mal=king artefacts like cabinets, wood carving, joinery, carpentry and woodturning.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
It is a trade used to create, design and erect structural, and make and install their various components. This includes the act of building houses, skyscrapers, hospitals and bridges.
METAL TECHNOLOGY
Is a trade comprised of different areas of specialization such as fitting and machining, fabrication and welding, foundry and forging? It deals with the construction, building manufacturing and production of mechanical parts and production of articles/artefacts.
AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Is the practical application of knowledge about self-propelled vehicles or machines, students studying automotive technology learn about engine construction, fuel and ignition systems, power trains, brakes, transmissions, electronics and diagnostic equipment.
An auto mechanic performs maintenance diagnostic testing repairs and inspections of small trucks and cars. They work on engines, drive belts, transmissions and electronic systems, such as steering, brakes and accidents avoidance systems.
ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY
It is a discipline that deals with the designing, creation, repair and development of everyday devices such as mobile phones, portable music devices, television and computers. Electronic offers the chance to produce new telecommunication, robotics, computing hardware, power and electrical equipment.
ELECTRICALS TECHNOLOGY
Is a trade that deals in installing maintaining and repairing electrical control, wiring and lighting systems.
IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
The importance of technical education are:
Ø Creation of employment/job.
Ø It increases productivity.
Ø It reduces poverty.
Ø Enhance economic, social and industrial/development.
Ø Creation of employable skills for job market or self-employment.
UNIQUENESS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
Ø It is practically oriented
Ø It relies on scientific principles
Ø It is manipulative and mechanical in nature
Ø Problem solving in nature
Ø It is mathematics and scientific in nature
INTERRELATEDNESS OF TVET AND SOCIAL STUDIES
1. Technology is used to motivate learning of social studies, such as TLM. Technology integration in social studies instruction to build an understanding of why technology is being used to teach social studies content.
2. They create jobs
3. They trained the individual to uncover his/ her talent and value
4. They promote the participation of studies in civic life and develop their ability to address societal conflicts and problems.
IMPLICATIONS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
1. An exclusive emphasis on social studies would produce scholars who are reflective and contemplative in outlook and critical of the problems of life.
2. It would produce morally sensitive and emotionally stable individuals. This would foster cohesion and stability in society.
3. Such emphasis if inclusive would create high rate of employment and increase production of primary and manufactured goods.
4. Emphasis on technical education without any consideration for social studies would provide manpower for scientific and technological development.
5. Exclusive emphasis on TVET would provide morally corrupt and insensitive people.
CAREER SKILLS
1. Technical Teachers
2. Building engineers
3. Mechanical engineers
4. Masons
5. Carpenters
6. Electrical engineers
7. Electronic engineers
8. Artisans
UNIT FOUR
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Entrepreneurship is a person whose role is to seize the opportunity to make profit from a new product, new process or unexploited raw materials. In other words an entrepreneur, often identified as the fourth factor of production, is a person who combines the other three factors of production, which are land, labour and capital in the production of goods and services, and bears all the risk involved and controls the business. The reward for an entrepreneur is profit.
Qualities of an Entrepreneur
• He/she must be courageous. That is he/she must have the courage to act on his or her decisions.
• He/she must have good human relations. He/she must be sociable and friendly.
• He/she must be knowledgeable to take decisions as to what to produce, when to produce and how to produce, and to whom to produce.
• He/she must have sound judgement.
• He/she must have vision and foresight to make projections for the future.
• He/she must be persistence. Success and failure characterize businesses. However, he/she must be persistent even in times of failure.
FUNCTIONS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR
i. Decision-making: he/she makes decision on what to produce, how to produce, when to produce, and location of the firm.
ii. Risk Bearing: he/she bears the risk in terms of losses when the business fails, in the same way he enjoys all the profits when the business succeeds.
iii. Staff recruitment.
iv. Co-ordination of activities.
The Concept of Enterprise
An enterprise is a business unit that is established to render a service or produce goods for customers. Enterprises are owned either privately or by the state.
Types of Enterprises in Ghana
Sole Proprietorship or One Man Business
A business unit is established, owned and controlled by one person. The person takes all decision relating to the business. The success or failure of the business depends on the ability and capability of this one-man or owner called Sole Proprietor. It is the commonest type of business enterprise in Ghana.
Source of Finance: The sole proprietor raise his capital from such sources as personal savings, loans from banks, family relatives, friends and credit unions.
ADVANTAGES
✓ The Sole Proprietor business is easy to form because the initial capital required to establish it is small and with very few legal formalities (documentation).
✓ The Sole Proprietor enjoys absolute privacy in terms of documentation and information that is involved in running the business.
✓ He/she enjoys great independence. The ability of the business to make profits depends on the hard work of the owner and his/her employees.
✓ He/she enjoys high profits because he/she contributed the start-up capital alone.
✓ The owner takes all decisions and is not obliged to consult anybody before arriving at them. The decision-making is therefore quick.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Lack of Fund: The ability of the sole proprietor to expand the business is limited because he/she cannot float shares in the open market or at the stock exchange.
2. Problem of Continuity: Most sole Proprietorship close down if the owner dies or run out of capital or when there is mismanagement by the owner.
3. Limited scale of production.
4. Unlimited Liability of the Owner: If the business should run into debts, the sole proprietor can be sued and his/her personal belongings sold to defray the costs.
PARTNERSHIP
Partnership is a business unit in which between two to twenty people agree to establish and run a profit-making business. Each of the partners contribute skills, labour, and resources to the venture in return for an agreed share of the profits.
TYPES OF PARTNERSHIP
Ordinary/unlimited/general partnership which is an unregistered business union and Limited partnership which is a registered business union. A limited partnership can only be registered if one of the partners has limited liability (not liable to debts) because he/she does not take part in the day-today administration of the business. Partnerships are controlled by a written agreement called a Partnership Deed or Article of Partnership. A deed of partnership usually contains information such as
✓ The names of the partners.
✓ Capital contributed by each partner.
✓ Formula for sharing profits among partners.
✓ Interest payable on partners invested capital.
✓ Partners salaries for special duties.
✓ Guidelines governing the withdrawal of capital by partners.
✓ The auditing of partnership account.
ADVANTAGES
1. Large Capital: There is the chance of raising more funds from the various people in the partnership. The contribution of each of the partners could swell up capital and may allow the business to engage in large-scale production.
2. Risks are Spread: A partnership spreads risk among the partners. This makes it more advantageous than sole proprietorship.
3. Greater Degree of Specialization: Partnership leads to each partner becoming skillful and specialized in the performance of his tasks due to their repetitive nature. Specialization leads to greater output in a firm.
4. Privacy of accounts.
DISADVANTAGES
• Unlimited Liability: Apart from one person whose liability is limited to the amount of money invested in the business, the general liability of the partnership is unlimited.
• Difficulties in decision-making: The need for consultation among the partners may affect consensus building. Quick decisions that are needed to solve emergency problems may delay in the process.
• Lack of Continuity: Just as with sole proprietorship, there is no assurance of the partnership continuing to exist for a long time. The partnership may come to an end if a partner dies, a partner withdraws or the business is declared bankrupt among others.
• Lack of Trust.
• No pride of Ownership.
CO-OPERATIVES
They are business organizations established by a group of people who share a common interest for their own mutual benefit. Some of the co-operatives in Ghana are buyer’s co-operatives, producers co-operative and consumers co-operative.
FEATURES OF CO-OPERATIVE UNIONS
➢ Membership is voluntary and open to all persons upon registration. Members can leave the union based on their own will.
➢ Members who contribute capital to begin a co-operative own and control it.
➢ Co-operatives are managed by committees who are elected by the entire membership of the union.
➢ Members meet periodically to discuss issues concerning them.
➢ The size of a co-operative union is usually not less than ten members so as benefit from government support.
➢ Members contribute capital to the union by paying dues and they can withdraw some of their monies without selling off their shares. Members bear the fruit risk and enjoys all
benefits of the union.
ADVANTAGES
❖ Democratic in nature.
❖ Membership education.
❖ Easy access to loans.
❖ Price stability.
DISADVANTAGES
▪ Lack of capital
▪ Misuse of funds.
JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES)
Joint stock refers to a company’s total assets such as machines, equipment, goods in stock, buildings and money in the bank, which is divided into shares, which are owned by individuals as shareholders. The reward for the ownership of shares is dividend. A joint-stock company is business unit comprising people who contribute capital for running a business to make profit. There are two kinds of joint-stock companies. These are;
Private Joint Stock Company
A private joint-stock company is a business organization formed by two to fifty people. Private joint-stock companies are commonly found in certain wholesale, retail and advertising firms.
Some of the features of a private joint-stock company are:
1. Private joint-stock companies comprises of 20 – 50 members.
2. A member cannot transfer his shares to another person.
3. Private joint-stock companies cannot raise money by selling shares directly to the public.
4. Private joint-stock companies are not required to publish their account to the
public.
Advantages of a Private Joint-Stock Company
A. Enjoys limited liability: When a private joint-stock company fails, shareholders only lose what they have contributed and not their personal property.
B. Possesses a large output: Private joint-stock companies have large output because Board of Directors of such units can expand the business without being limited.
C. Has the ability to raise large capital: Private joint-stock companies can raise large capital through the sale of shares, applying for loans and overdraft from commercial banks
D. Acts as a separate legal entity: Private joint-stock companies act as separate legal body because they carry out activities such as buying raw materials and hiring labour in the name of the company and not in the name of shareholders who owns the business.
Disadvantages of private Joint-Stock Company
▪ Lack of privacy.
▪ Decision-making is slow.
▪ Faces management problems.
▪ Does not sell shares publicly.
PUBLIC-JOINT COMPANY (SEVEN TO INFINITY MEMBERS)
A public joint-stock company is publicly owned business organization formed by a minimum of seven people but comprises an unlimited number of shareholders. Some of the features of public join-stock companies are:
➢ Public joint-stock companies may raise capital by issuing shares to the general public through the Ghana Stock Exchange.
➢ Public joint-stock companies have unlimited number of shareholders.
➢ Shareholders can purchase any amount of shares in the business up to the amount of capital the business wants to raise.
➢ A shareholder can freely transfer his share to other members of the public.
➢ Their accounts be published through the media annually.
Advantages of public joint-stock company
2. Enjoys limited liability.
3. Continuity of business.
4. Has the ability to raise large capital through the sale of shares and loans from banks.
5. Easy transfer of shares.
6. They enjoys economies of scale due to their size.
Disadvantages of public joint-stock company
A. Lack of privacy over accounts and issues of shares.
B. Expensive to operate because of huge legal expenses, which must be met.
C. Conflict of interest between shareholders and Directors on certain issues.
Public Co-Operations (Article 92), (190.4)
Public corporations also known as State-owned enterprises refer to business organization which are established by an Act of Parliament and completely owned, control, and financed by the government to provide essential services. Examples include Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, Volta River Authority, and Ghana Food Distribution Corporation. The establishment of public corporation is not maximize profit but it has to break even.
Reasons for the Establishment of Public Corporations
➢ Huge Capital Recruitment: Certain services require huge capital outlay that the private individual may not have for their take-off e.g. provision of electricity and water.
➢ Elimination of Exploitation: To prevent individuals from exploiting the citizens when allowed to provide essential services such as water and electricity.
➢ Ensuring a Reasonable High Cost: The state corporations provide services at reasonable cheaper cost to meet the pocket of the ordinary citizen of the country. Through the activities of public corporations, the people can afford electricity and water, and other essential goods and services.
➢ The Creation of Jobs: One reason is to provide jobs for the people especially school leavers. State-owned organizations such as the Volta River Authority, police, prisons and other security providers offer employment to many Ghanaians every year.
➢ The Desire to Generate Revenue: Though the major aim of establishing public corporations is to provide vital services and not to make profits. Some State-owned organizations provide the government with substantial revenue. E.g. is the Customs, Excise and preventive service (CEPS).
➢ For strategic or Security Reasons: Certain corporations are established to protect the security of the state. For example, the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and Tema
Oil Refinery are two of the country’s most strategies entities, which cannot be left in the hands of private individuals.
Basic Distinction between State-Owned Enterprises and Private Enterprises
State owned enterprises differ from private enterprises in terms of formation, ownership, purpose, management and control and finance (profit and loss).
1. Formation: State owned enterprises are established by the central government with approval from Parliament, whereas Private enterprises are set up by individual through the Registrar of companies.
2. Ownership: State enterprises are owned by the state Government or local authority, but Private enterprises are owned by an individual or group of people.
3. Purpose (Motives): While state enterprises exists primarily for the purpose of providing essential services to the people, the purpose of Private enterprises are to make profit.
4. Control: State owned enterprises are controlled by Board of Directors appointed by Government or Sector Ministers, whereas Private enterprises are controlled by Board of Directors appointed by the shareholders or owners of the business.
5. Finance: State enterprises receive their capital direct from the government. On the other hand, Private enterprises raise their capital by issuing shares or from the contribution of the owner.
Challenges facing State-Owned Enterprises in Ghana
❖ Inadequate Capital: The majority of the state owned enterprises lack the needed capital such as money and machines to operate.
❖ Political Interference: Government interference in the affairs of the state-owned enterprises leads to the placement of less competent people at certain positions.
❖ Poor Attitude of Work: The majority of Ghanaians working in state-owned enterprises go to work late, absent themselves or exhibit gross laziness while at work because they lack interest in the work they do whilst others think that they will be paid at the end of the month whether they work or not.
❖ Poor Working Conditions: Most employees of state-owned enterprises work under poor working conditions and therefore are not motivated to give of their best. Some of these employees are teachers, nurses, secretaries and laborers.
❖ Misuse of Fund or Bribery and Corruption: State enterprises suffer corruption of all forms. Workers take bribe before attending to clients whilst managers and top officials misuse and steal funds intended for projects and to run the enterprise.
❖ Poor Supervision and mismanagement: Employees of state-owned enterprises are hardly monitored or supervised and therefore do whatever they please. In addition, the size of some state-owned enterprises also makes effective supervision and control difficult.
❖ Lack of technical expertise.
❖ Nepotism.
❖ Bureaucracy: An individual will have to pass through long and stringent procedures to get things done. This kills initiative and slow down work.
Solutions to the Challenges Facing State-Owned Enterprise in Ghana
The problems of state-owned enterprises can be solved by:
Providing adequate funds: The government must give state-owned enterprises adequate resources to increase their efficiency.
Limiting State Interference: Government must avoid interference in the affairs of state-owned enterprises and possibly make them autonomous (independent) to increase their productivity.
Ensuring Effective Supervision: The government should ensure that management of state-owned enterprises supervises their workers effectively to change their attitudes towards work.
Factors Responsible For the Relative Effectiveness of Private Enterprises Over State-Owned Enterprises (Private Schools and Public Schools)
Productivity is higher in the private sector than in the public sector for a number of reasons.
1. Better Supervision: Productivity levels in the private sector are higher than the government sector because there is effective supervision at the private sector. Because of the profit motive, every worker must work hard to the expectation of the entrepreneur. Hence the effective supervision.
2. Provision of Needed Facilities: The private entrepreneur ensures that he supplies his workers with all the facilities they may needed to increase productivity. These facilities may include conductive environment, raw materials, vehicles, and utilities.
3. Better wages and salaries to boost the morale of workers, urging them to work effectively and efficiently.
4. Provision of Incentives in the form of medical care, housing, bonuses, canteen services, and transport allowances etc. and as a reciprocal gesture, the workers put in their maximum effort to work to achieve higher levels of productivity. In addition, with these incentives, the entrepreneur is able to retain the best professionals and experts.
5. Fear of losing one’s job, because of this workers exhibit positive attitudes at work places to increase productivity and maintain their jobs.
6. Quick decision-making: Administrative bottleneck are at minimum at the private
sector, enabling the private entrepreneur to make decisions easily.
The role of Government in Ensuring Survival of Private Enterprises
a) Provides Infrastructure: The government must extend social infrastructure much as water, electricity and good roads to all parts of the country to attract investments into private sector businesses.
b) Guarantee financial support for private business: There is the need for government to guarantee financial support for businesses by setting up more financial assistance programs such as the Poverty Alleviation Fund and Business Assistance Fund.
c) Organize training for private business: The government must organize regular business courses to train and upgrade the managerial and technical skills of private business entrepreneurs and their workers.
d) Advertise the Product of Private in Overseas Countries: The government should produce and distribute magazines and brochures through her embassies abroad to market products of Ghanaian private enterprises. The government’s official internet website www.ghanagov.com should be upgraded to market private businesses electronically.
e) Organize trade fairs and sponsor local private businesses to attend: The government must organize trade fairs abroad and sponsor local private businesses to attend these fairs to exhibit and promote Ghanaian goods.
f) Check Importation of Goods into the Country: The government must initiate and implement policies that protect private businesses against external competition by limiting the import of certain goods and reducing corporate taxes.
g) Provide an Enabling Environment for Businesses: The government must provide infrastructure, set up of a national investment Council, establish National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) and enact good investment laws to help businesses.
h) Government must provide tax relief for new businesses.
The Role of Private Sector to Ensure Continuous Survival
➢ Produce quality goods: Private businesses must produce high quality goods in order to attract state support. Products of private businesses must meet local and international standards.
➢ Sell at reasonable prices: Owing to the presence of cheap foreign products reasonably to attract large local patronage and governmental support. This will keep them in business and give them a fair share of the market.
➢ Keep Proper Records: Private businesses in Ghana should keep proper records of accounts, purchases and supplies to make their operations effective.
➢ Fulfill their Tax Obligations: Private businesses must honor their tax obligations to the state by declaring their profit correctly and paying their taxes promptly to avoid being closed down.
➢ Contribute to Social Programs of their Community and of the Country: Private businesses should contribute to social programs of their community and of the country e.g. providing educational scholarship, supporting state projects, donating to charity and healthcare.
GOOD LUCK IN YOUR EXAMS
WRITING TEAM
CLETUS ANGAASO (COURSE COORDINATOR) – UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA BENJAMIN SEMENY0 LIFESON (SSTVET SECRETARY) – PRESBYTERIAN COLLEGE OF EDUCATION. AKROPONG-AKUAPEM
ERIC CATO ATUTE – PRESBYTERIAN WOMEN COLLEGE OF EDUCATION. ABURI-AKUAPEM DANIEL KWAME EMILIO - BIA LAMPLIGHTER COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, SEFWI DEBISO SAMUEL NYAMEKYE OTCHERE - METHODIST COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, AKIM ODA AMUZU SAVIOUR- BAGABAGA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, TAMALE
PATRICK ADOM KWARTENG- WIAWSO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, SEFWI WIAWSO LAWSON OSEI- AKATSI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, AKATSI
HABIBA ABU (SSTVET SECRETARY) - ST.JOHN BOSCO’S COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, NAVRONGO JAMES BADU AFARI- PRESBYTERIAN WOMEN’S COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, AGOGO HAGAR AYISI-BOATENG – ST. LOUIS COLLEGE OF EDUCATION. KUMASI
MICHAEL ODENKEY QUAYE - ST. LOUIS COLLEGE OF EDUCATION. KUMASI VICTORIA D. AMANKRA – KOMENDA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION MAGDALEN A. AGGREY – AGOGO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
PATIENCE OWUSUAA ANNOR – SDA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, KOFORIDUA ESTHER KORKOR DJIDJOR – METHODIST COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, AKIM – ODA REGINA TURKSON – WIAWSO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION MARY ADUSEI- ST. LOUIS COLLEGE OF EDUCATION. KUMASI
MICHAEL ATEYIRE – ST JOHN BOSCO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, NAVRONGO AASONA DOMINIC – N.J. COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, WA
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