COURSE OUTLINE

Simply put, research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the development of new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to a new understanding that was not previously known.

“Research is a systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of information) designed to develop or contribute to generalisable knowledge”

While research can be carried out by anyone and in any field, most research is usually done to broaden knowledge in the physical, biological, and social worlds. This can range from learning why certain materials behave the way they do, to asking why certain people are more resilient than others when faced with the same challenges.

The use of ‘systematic investigation’ in the formal definition represents how research is normally conducted – a hypothesis is formed, appropriate research methods are designed, data is collected and analysed, and research results are summarised into one or more ‘research conclusions. These research conclusions are then shared with the rest of the scientific community to add to the existing knowledge and serve as evidence to form additional questions that can be investigated. It is this cyclical process that enables scientific research to make continuous progress over the years; the true purpose of research.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

· Empirical – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life observations and experiments.

· Logical – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.

· Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e., research should lead to a new line of questioning.

· Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant, except those under investigation.

· Hypothesis-based – the research design generates data that sufficiently meets the research objectives and can prove or disprove the hypothesis. It makes the research study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.

· Analytical – data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven techniques to ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimising potential errors and anomalies.

· Objective – sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research findings are valid.

· Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used to transform the available data into something more meaningful from which knowledge can be gained.

Page | 3

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing knowledge through the development of scientific theories, concepts and ideas. A research purpose is met through forming hypotheses, collecting data, analysing results, forming conclusions, implementing findings into real-life applications and forming new research questions.

From weather forecasts to the discovery of antibiotics, researchers are constantly trying to find new ways to understand the world and how things work – with the ultimate goal of improving our lives.

The purpose of research is therefore to find out what is known, what is not and what we can develop further. In this way, scientists can develop new theories, ideas and products that shape our society and our everyday lives.

The purpose of research is to further understand the world and to learn how this knowledge can be applied to better everyday life. It is an integral part of problem solving.

Although research can take many forms, there are three main purposes of research:

1. Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that has not yet been clearly defined. Exploration research therefore aims to gain a better understanding of the exact nature of the problem and not to provide a conclusive answer to the problem itself. This enables us to conduct more in-depth research later on.

2. Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describes the behaviour of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit. Descriptive research focuses on the ‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.

3. Explanatory: Causal or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty. Explanatory research deals with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often based on experiments.

Here is a comparative analysis for better understanding:

Page | 4

Research begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to

investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyse the

findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires. You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. Classification based on Application:

1. Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research: As the term suggests a research activity taken up to look into some aspects of a problem or an issue for the first time is termed as basic or pure. It involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. Pure research is theoretical but has a universal nature. It is more focused on creating scientific knowledge and predictions for further studies.

2. Applied / Decisional Research: Applied research is done on the basis of pure or fundamental research to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. The purpose of doing such research is to find solutions to an immediate issue, solving a particular problem, developing new technology and look into future advancements etc. This involves forecasting and assumes that the variables shall not change.

Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research

a) Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already existing scientific knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to mean the scientific study that is helpful in solving real-life problems.

b) While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical approach.

c) The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the sense that the former is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to the specific problem, for which it was carried out.

d) The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and predictions. On the other hand, applied research stresses on the development of technology and technique with the help of basic science.

Page | 5

e) The fundamental goal of basic research is to add some knowledge to the already existing one. Conversely, applied research is directed toward finding a solution to the problem under consideration.

2. Classification based on Objectives:

a. Descriptive Research: This attempts to explain a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information viz. living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue but this is done systematically. It is used to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research question or problem. This type of research makes an attempt to collect any

information that can be expressed in quantifiable terms that can be used to statistically analyse a target audience or a particular subject. Descriptive research is used to observe and describe a research subject or problem without influencing or manipulating the variables in any way. Thus, such studies are usually correlation or

observational. This type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than inquisitive.

E.g., explaining details of budget allocation changes to departmental heads in a meeting to assure clarity and understanding for reasons to bring in a change.

b. Co-relational Research: This is a type of non-experimental research method, in which a researcher measures two variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable. This is undertaken to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. For example, the mind can memorize the bell of an ice cream seller or sugar candy vendor. Louder the bell sound, closer is the vendor to us. We draw this inference based on our memory and the taste of these delicious food items. This is specifically what co relational research is, establishing a relationship between two variables, ―bell sound‖ and ―distance of the vendor‖ in this particular example. Co relational research is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other so that when you see one variable changing, you have a fair idea how the other variable will change.

c. Explanatory: is the research whose primary purpose is to explain why events occur, to build, elaborate, extend or test a theory. It is more concerned with showcasing, explaining and presenting what we already have. It is the process of turning over 100 rocks to find perhaps 1 or 2 precious gemstones. Explanatory survey research may look into the factors that contribute to customer satisfaction and determine the relative weight of each factor, or seek to model the variables that lead to people shifting to departmental stores from small shops from where they have been making purchases till now. An exploratory survey posted to a social networking site may uncover the fact that organization customers are unhappy thus helping the organization take up necessary corrective measures.

d. Exploratory Research: Exploration has been the human kind’s passion since the time immemorial. Looking out for new things, new destinations, new food, and new cultures has been the basis of most tourist and travel journeys. In the subjective terms exploratory research is conducted to find a solution for a problem that has not been studied more clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data-collection method and selection of subjects. For such research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues that can be the hub for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such research is usually carried out when the problem is at a beginning stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how. For example: a fast- food outlet owner feels that increasing the variety of snacks will enable increase in sales, however he is not sure and needs more information. Thus, the owner starts studying local competition, talks to the existing customers, friends etc to find out what

Page | 7

are their views about the current menu and what else do they wish to be included in the menu and also assess whether he would be able to generate higher revenues.

3. Classification based on Inquiry Mode:

a. Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as

quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation e.g., how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude? E.g., asking a guest to give feedback about the dishes served in a restaurant.

b. Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people has about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry. E.g., when guest is complaining about the room not being comfortable and is demanding a discount the staff has to verify the claims empathically.

In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity. Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the culture and cuisine. The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACTION RESEARCH AND APPLIED RESEARCH

Currently there is considerable interest in action research (AR) in the language teaching field. The December 1999 issue of The Language Teacher, for example, was devoted entirely to this subject. Action research is now frequently promoted as a new way for teachers to develop professionally and to investigate their classroom practice. But, despite the growth of new publications now discussing action research, would-be teacher researchers are not always necessarily clear about what action research is, or how it relates to other kinds of applied research in the second language teaching field with which they may already be familiar.

Take, for example, the following comment from a teacher with whom I recently worked on an action research project (see Burns, 1999).

My experience of doing action research is that it is difficult to grasp or explain the concept until one is in the process of doing it. It is in the doing that it starts to make sense and become clear. (Jane Hamilton, personal communication)

On the JALT Teacher Education SIG action research listserv, Dale Griffee recently raised the issue of how AR relates to other kinds of research that aim to have applications to second language teaching and learning:

Page | 8

What is the difference between AR and applied research? The answer has to be a characteristic that is not the case for applied research. I don't think we can say that AR is done by teachers, and that is its defining characteristic, because applied research is also done by teachers all the time. What are the characteristics that set AR aside and mark it as different?

This question is useful and challenging. In my experience, it is one that is frequently asked by teachers new to action research: How is action research different from another research? Action research and applied research are in some ways similar and overlapping, but there are also important differences between them. In this article I will attempt to draw out some of these similarities and differences, and address, in particular, the question of what characterises action research. I'll focus this exploration by first considering two hypotheticals’ examples of research that might be carried out on the topic of classroom strategies to enhance oral interaction.

Example 1

As part of the introduction of a new syllabus, a researcher wishes to know whether the use of group work will improve students' ability to speak English. The researcher first consults the literature on this area of research and decides on the approach and methods to be used. The researcher's hypothesisis "Group work will increase the development of both fluency and accuracy in oral tasks." The researcher assigns one group of students in a school to an experimental group, where all classroom tasks are conducted through group work for a period of two months. An equal number of students (the control group) are taught using the same tasks through a whole-class, teacher-fronted approach for the same period. In order to ensure that the students in the experimental group are not at higher levels of language learning to begin with, the researcher first administers a test. She then assigns students to the groups on the basis of the test results. At the end of the two months, each of the groups is given a further identical test in order to see whether the use of group work has resulted in higher results for the experimental group. The results show that the students assigned to group work have performed at a higher level in relation to fluency, but that their performance on some aspects of grammatical accuracy is lower than the control group. The researcher publishes the findings of the study in a journal.

Example 2

As part of the introduction of a new syllabus, a researcher decides to move away from the use of whole-class speaking activities in his classroom. He decides to introduce more group work for certain tasks and to observe how the students react. He assigns students to groups and keeps a journal noting down his observations over a period of two weeks. At the end of this period, he notes that some students are not participating in the group tasks and are increasingly reluctant to work in groups. He decides that students are unused to this approach and need more practice. He increases the use of group work and assigns students to the same groups. He also asks the students to complete a survey on their responses to group work. His own observation and journal entries, as well as the surveys indicate that students are becoming even more reluctant to do group work. The teacher discusses the problem with some colleagues who suggest he tries letting students choose their own groups. The teacher tries this strategy over a further period of one week and notes that students are less reluctant. He also observes that the groups do not remain static, but appear to change according tothe task. He decides to try a further approach of giving students a choice of tasks. This approach works even better and interaction amongst the students increases noticeably.

Page | 9

You may have already decided (correctly) that the first is an example of applied research, while the second reflects an action research approach. Both of these examples are, of course, simplified and idealised, but they do perhaps serve to draw out some of the essential similarities and differences between action research and applied research.

The first thing to note is that both approaches adopt a scientific perspective (Cohen and Manion, 1994) on the issues they are investigating. In other words, they are both concerned to go beyond intuitions or assumptions, and to use a systematic approach to asking questions, collecting data, analysing the data, and drawing out conclusions and interpretations from the findings. However, there are differences in the approach. The first study adopts an objective stance in which the researcher attempts to control variables that may affect the findings and to identify possible relationships between the treatment (group work) and the outcomes (increases in fluency and accuracy). The action researcher is not interested in establishing relationships of this type, but instead wants to find the best possible ways of setting up new classroom activities. This is a more subjective perspective, concerned with exploring different ways of teaching and deliberately changing conditions in the classroom.

Second, they are both concerned with language learning and teaching and aim to find answers to issues that concern practice in the classroom. However, they differ in the way these answers may be applied. The first example is likely to have as one of its goals a contribution to a body of existing knowledge about effective teaching and learning; its findings may be applied in classroom teaching, but these applications may not be immediate. In the second example, the goal of the researcher is much more focused on addressing concrete issues of practical and personal concern. In other words, this research has immediate application; it focuses on discovering more about a specific teaching issue which has significance for the researcher in relation to his own classroom and students.

Third, each researcher adopts a different approach to selecting and using the research methods. The first researcher applies a structured and controlled set of methods, using control and experimental groups and guarding against threats to validity through pre- and post testing. This is because one aim of the study is to generalise beyond this specific research situation to other comparable situations. The second researcher uses a much more open-ended approach, selecting and changing the methods as needed and as new insights emerge. His concern is with his own situation and with the solution of practical classroom issues.

A fourth area to consider is that of theory. Both applied and action research may be concerned with theory, but the theoretical ideas will probably be developed in very different ways. Applied research will usually be concerned with connecting with and testing out a body of existing theory; it will draw substantially upon the literature in a particular research area, in order to provide a theoretical base for the study. This is why the researcher in the first example consults the literature and draws from this the methodological approach for the research. In contrast, the action researcher is interested in understanding what his explorations reveal. In other words, personal knowledge becomes the basis for developing one's own theories about teaching and learning (see Burns, 1996 on teacher theories).

This brief discussion highlights some of the major differences and similarities between the two types of research. Each type could well be carried out by the same person, who may also be a teacher at the school (although, in comparison with academic researchers, teachers often find it difficult to obtain the time and resources to carry out experimental applied research -- but

Page | 10

that's another whole discussion!). The main point is that the overall approach adopted is very different in each case and is used for different purposes.

What then can we say about what characterises action research? For me, action research has the following distinguishing features:

1. It emerges from concrete problems, issues, puzzles or questions that are of importance and concern to the people involved within their own social context. From an educational perspective, these people may include teachers, students, program administrators, parents, curriculum developers, teacher educators and others. Action research is not, however, confined to classrooms. Studies have been carried out in prisons, hospitals, community groups, businesses and industry and so on.

2. It has a practical focus (the action component) which involves identifying the area of concern and acting to change it. This means acting to improve something or to do something more effectively, and systematically observing the effects of the action (the research component).

3. It is (usually, but not always) small-scale, focusing on local needs and the immediate context, with all its complexity, as the environment for the research. In other words, it does not attempt to control that environment in any way, but looks at how issues can be addressed as they exist in that environment.

4. The processes and outcomes of the research should relate to the goals, values and beliefs of the people in the environment and be compatible with their social and working conditions. In other words, the research should provide a sense of personal meaning and development for those involved.

5. The methods should be feasible and within the scope of the researcher's usual practice. Ideally, the action researcher should choose a range of methods which are achievable and do not interfere too much with daily practice. In my own work with teachers, I usually stress that many teaching techniques (e.g., surveys, interviews, journals, recordings) can be adapted for data collection.

6. It involves cycles of action and reflection which are linked by the data collection and the researcher's developing knowledge. It is difficult to determine a finishing point for these cycles; they could continue for as long as the individual or group feel that the research is producing change and improvement in the social context.

7. It is a reflexive activity which brings to light unconscious ways of doing things and enables the researcher to develop personal theories based on goals, values, and beliefs about practice (personal, here, also refers to those shared by groups involved in collaborative research).

Many teachers, busy enough already with program and lesson preparation, teaching loads, marking, and the demands of the syllabus set out by the organisation or Monbusho, feel quite daunted by the thought of taking on the extra role of researcher. To do research, after all, is not why you may have become a teacher!

However, action research is an approach which -- as many teachers I have worked with have said -- is not only feasible, but gives an exhilarating edge to their teaching. I have often heard

Page | 11

comments about the sense of empowerment and affirmation that action research provides. It seems to me that this is because action research focuses on learning through action in order to understand better what you do as a teacher and why you do it. It is a wayNof refreshing your teaching practice and enhancing your knowledge about teaching in the living laboratory of your own classroom.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS AND EXAMPLE

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative. Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a method that enables non-numerical data collection through open- ended methods such as interviews, case studies, focus groups, ethnographic studies and text analysis.

It enables researchers to collect data on personal experiences, feelings or behaviours, as well as the reasons behind them. Because of this, qualitative research is often used in fields such as social science, psychology and philosophy and other areas where it is useful to know the connection between what has occurred and why it has occurred.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a method that collects and analyses numerical data through statistical analysis.

It allows us to quantify variables, uncover relationships, and make generalisations across a larger population. As a result, quantitative research is often used in the natural and physical sciences such as engineering, biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, finance, and medical research, etc.

Types of quantitative methods include:

Survey research descriptive research and correlational research Action Research

Action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative, and analytical research

methods designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses—whether organizational, academic, or instructional—and help educators develop practical solutions to address them quickly and efficiently. Action research may also be applied to programs or educational techniques that are not necessarily experiencing any problems, but that educators simply want to learn more about and improve. The general goal is to create a simple, practical, repeatable process of iterative learning, evaluation, and improvement that leads to increasingly better results for schools, teachers, or programs.

According to Stringer (2014), action research is “a systematic approach to investigation that enables people to find effective solutions to problems they confront in their everyday lives’’ (p.277). Action or intervention is central to the idea of action research and requires a spiral of action cycles at developing, implementing, evaluating action or intervention plan to improve the practice (Kemmis, 1982).

Page | 12

Action research combines a substantive act with a research procedure; it is action disciplined by enquiry, a personal attempt at understanding while engaged in a process of improvement and reform’ (Hopkins, 2008, p. 47).

Action research involves the application of the steps of the scientific method to educational problems. Although it is similar in some respects to experimental research, action research differs principally in the extent to which findings can be generalized. Primary concern for action research is problem solving, hence, it is focused on the immediate application and not on the development of a theory. Many action research projects are carried out in a single classroom by a single teacher; and the others, by all the teachers in an institution or even any aspect. Its findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universal validity. Its purpose is to improve institutional practices.

Action research is a methodology; that is a framework for approaching a piece of research. Action researchers believe, or adopt a position, which says the world can be seen differently from different perspectives. They try to understand and make improvements to practice in an environment where there are probably many viewpoints. Action researchers do not start out with the opinion that there is one way of seeing the world and their research can discover this. Trying to reach decisions and ways forward amongst a complex situation is the business of action research (Arnold, 2015).

ORIGIN OF ACTION RESEARCH

It is generally accepted that action research emerged in the United States during the 1940s through the work of social psychologist Kurt Lewin. In his work, Lewin (1946) promoted shared decision-making by stakeholders in the workplace and the establishment of community action programs. While others, including John Collier and Jacob Moreno, have also been credited with the rise of action research, it was Lewin’s work and reputation that gave impetus to action research movements in different disciplines.

In the 1950s, action research was taken up in educational circles, specifically by the teaching profession, and was advanced by Stephen Corey in his book Action Research to Improve School Practices (1953). Use of action research went into decline in the United States in the late 1950s, perhaps because of a focus on new research models and technical excellence in the “space age.” In contrast, the approach began to gain momentum in the U.K. only in the 1970s, mainly through the influence of Lawrence Stenhouse, who was working in the context of teacher education. Stenhouse argued that teachers in classrooms should be supported by higher education personnel and wrote that the “fruitful development in the field of curriculum and teaching depends upon evolving styles of cooperative research by teachers and using full-time researchers to support the teachers’ work” (1975: 162).

Another researcher, Stephen Kemmis, became active in action research in Australia and gained worldwide influence by developing ideas with a critical and participatory focus. Through Kemmis’ contributions, action research became recognized as a form of practical research that legitimized teachers’ attempts to understand their work from their own point of view. Instead of learning about the disciplines and applying those theories to their work in a sterile, objective manner only, teachers were encouraged to explore what they were doing and propose ways of improving it by using a hands-on approach.

Page | 13

Although action research initially flourished in the field of education, this approach to inquiry is now widely accepted across disciplines and recognized for its potential to contribute to knowledge and theory generation. The adoption of action research by various disciplines produced a number of variants of its basic tenets. The variants include cooperative inquiry

(Heron 1988; Reason and Rowan 1981), participatory action research (Sappington, Baker,

Gardner and Pacha 2010), and action science (Argyris and Schön 1978). teacher research (Burnaford, Fischer, and Hobson 2001), reflective practice (Evans 2002), and community service learning (Angelelli 1998; Kaye 2004).

Types Of Action Research

Berg (2001) suggested that there are three modes of action research: (a) technical/scientific/ collaborative, (b) practical/mutual collaborative/deliberative, and (c) emancipating/enhancing/ critical science. Each mode has a distinct goal. The goal of the technical/scientific/collaborative mode is to test a particular intervention based on a pre-specified theoretical framework. The practical/mutual collaborative/deliberative mode seeks to improve practice- and-service delivery while, the emancipating/enhancing/critical science mode focuses on assisting practitioners in lifting their veil of clouded understandings, and help them to better understand fundamental problems by raising their collective consciousness. Action research types has also been viewed in terms of the its design. For instance, VanBaren (2019) categorised action research into four main types:

1. Individual Research

Individual action research is undertaken by a single teacher or member of staff. This type of study is carried out to examine a certain activity. A teacher might ask if including group activities into an English class will help students learn more effectively. The teacher does research on his or her own by leading a group activity for a set amount of time. The teacher assesses the results after the action is completed, makes changes, or discards the program if it is not found to be productive.

2. Collaborative Research

Collaborative research entails a group of people working together to investigate a specific issue. With collaborative research, more than one person is participating in the implementation of the new program with collaborative research. A group of students, usually larger than one class, is tested, and the results are analysed. Many a time, collaborative research involves both teachers and principals of the school. This sort of study allows a large number of people to work together on a single topic. Individual action research frequently provides fewer benefits than collaborative action research.

3. School -Wide Research

In most cases, action research programmes are born out of a problem that concerns the entire institution. School-wide action research is when a program is investigated for a whole school. A school may be concerned about a school-wide problem for this form of action research. This could be due to a lack of parental participation or research into how to improve pupils' performance in a specific topic. During this research, the entire staff collaborates to investigate the problem, introduce changes, and remedy or improve performance.

4. District-Wide Research

Page | 14

When the problem borders on a whole school district, district-wide research is used. This sort of action research is usually more focused on the community than the others. This format can also be used to address district-wide organizational issues. Staff from each school in the district collaborates on district-wide research to remedy the problem or find methods to improve the situation.

Action Research as Reflective Practice

Reflection is a significant component of self-study and action research (Mills, 2003) as it is a powerful way to know about the self in research and practice as well as to unpack the very self in teaching practice. Reflective practice in teacher education allows teacher educators to explore how teachers learn by including “I” in an epistemology of reflective practice (Whitehead, 2000). Reflective pedagogy helps teachers closely examine current practice and spearhead changes as teacher leaders (Reason & Reason, 2007). In other words, self- study means studying one’s own practice in its simple term, but its definition varies according to role, practice, and purpose (Smaras & Freese, 2006)—a process that lends itself to qualitative inquiry which uses narrative, descriptive approaches to data collection and analysis. Reflective practice is learning and developing through examining what we think happened on any occasion, and how we think others perceived the event and us, opening our practice to the scrutiny of others, and studying texts from the wider sphere. (Bolton, 2005, p. 7)

While engaging in self-study, teachers examine and problematize their own teaching by reflecting on their practice. Fairbanks and LaGrone (2006) for example, examined the ways in which teachers constructed knowledge through the discourse of a teacher research group and found that teachers’ learning and teaching is transformed through the talk about theory and practice to support their research efforts. Swinglehurst, Russell, and Greenhalgh (2008) assert that “action research is becoming a popular approach to studying complex social situations such as those found in educational settings, where the focus is on simultaneous [inquiry] into practice (generating knowledge) and action to improve situations (e.g., designing new curricula or learning activities)” (p. 385). Through this self-directed inquiry, the teacher will (1) “ask essential questions, gather data and necessary information, and analyse and interpret the information to answer their questions” (McVicker, 2008/2009, p. 22); and (2) engage in critical and reflective thinking through self-directed (Elder & Paul, 2007) exploration to self-evaluate current practice.

Many educators concerned with how and what teacher candidates learn in and beyond the college classrooms (Zeichner, 2007) suggest that knowledge is not passed down from one person with authority to another or a group of people with less power and limited knowledge, instead knowledge is acquired through social interaction within a particular learning community. In this context, self-study research can help to create a better understanding of what constitutes professional knowledge.

Action Research as bridging the gap between research and practice Recommendations to bridge the research–practice gap

a. Researchers and practitioners should engage the community, including stakeholders, as

equal partners in the initiation of community‐based interventions.

· Scientific evidence and community knowledge should be integrated into intervention planning.

Page | 15

b. Journal editors should allow a focus on implementation methods in scientific articles that deal with community interventions, either by allowing lengthier descriptions of interventions within articles or providing web‐based links to such in‐depth descriptions.

c. Negative findings warrant careful exploration to determine whether the research failed to find an effect as a result of program design, implementation or evaluation.

d. The injury field should have an equal focus on theory and research, practice, and training, including the following:

· Universities should make it a priority that the next generation of researchers (ie, graduate students) and practitioners acquire real experience in community‐ based programs.

· Existing practitioners should receive quality training and opportunities for skills development to enhance their ability to apply scientific evidence and community knowledge at every stage of intervention development, adaptation, implementation and evaluation.

· Funding guidelines should support the acquisition of comprehensive knowledge by requiring strong formative and process information and outcome data.

The Need for Action Research

1. Important for Teacher Professional Development:

a. Research and reflection allow teachers to grow and gain confidence in their work.

b. Action research projects influence

· Thinking skills,

· Sense of efficacy,

· Willingness to share and communicate, and o Attitudes toward the process of change.

c. Through action research, teachers learn about themselves, their students, their colleagues, and can determine ways to continually improve.

2. Evaluation of Own Practice:

Opportunities for teachers to evaluate themselves in schools are often few, and usually happen only in an informal manner.

a. Action research can serve as a chance to really take a look at one's own teaching in a structured manner.

b. While the focus of action research is usually the students, educators can also investigate what effect their teaching is having on their students, how they could work better with other teachers or ways of changing the whole school for the better.

c. Conversations can take on a different focus from attempting to "fix" to arrive at understanding.

3. Focus on School Issues, Problems, or Area of Collective Interest:

a. Research done with the teacher's students, in a setting with which the teacher is familiar helps to confer relevance and validity to a disciplined study.

Page | 16

b. Often, academic research is seen as disconnected from the daily lives of educators. While this might not always be true, it can be very helpful for teachers to pick up threads suggested in academic circles, and weave them into their own classroom.

c. It is also comforting for parents, or education administrators outside of the school, to know that a teacher is not just blindly.

d. Following what the latest study seems to suggest, but is transforming the knowledge into something meaningful

4. Give Opportunities for Collegial interactions:

Isolation is one of the downsides of teaching. Teachers are often the sole adult in a room of children and have little or no time scheduled for professional conversations with others.

a. Action research in pairs or by teams of teachers allows time to talk with others about teaching and teaching strategies.

b. By working on these teams, teachers must describe their own teaching styles and strategies and share their thoughts with others.

c. As a team, they examine various instructional strategies, learning activities, and curricular materials used in the classroom.

d. Through these discussions with colleagues, they develop stronger relationships.

As the practice of action research becomes part of the school culture, we see increased sharing and collaboration across

· Departments,

· Disciplines,

· Grade levels, and schools.

5. Improved Collegiality and Communications:

a. Teamwork within the school or district brings individuals together for a shared purpose.

b. Educators involved in action research become more flexible in their thinking and more open to new ideas.

c. Studies suggest positive changes in patterns of collegiality, communication, and networking.

Key Principles of Action Research

1) Reflexive critique

An account of a situation, such as notes, transcripts or official documents, will make implicit claims to be authoritative, i.e., it implies that it is factual and true. Truth in a social setting, however, is relative to the teller. The principle of reflective critique ensures people reflect on issues and processes and make explicit the interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon which judgments are made. In this way, practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.

2) Dialectical critique

Reality, particularly social reality, is consensually validated, which is to say it is shared through language. Phenomena are conceptualized in dialogue; therefore, a dialectical critique is required to understand the set of relationships both between the phenomenon and its context,

Page | 17

and between the elements constituting the phenomenon. The key elements to focus attention on are those constituent elements that are unstable, or in opposition to one another. These are the ones that are most likely to create changes.

3) Collaborative Resource

Participants in an action research project are co-researchers. The principle of collaborative resource presupposes that each person's ideas are equally significant as potential resources for creating interpretive categories of analysis, negotiated among the participants. It strives to avoid the skewing of credibility stemming from the prior status of an idea-holder. It especially makes possible the insights gleaned from noting the contradictions both between many viewpoints and within a single viewpoint.

4) Risk

The change process potentially threatens all previously established ways of doing things, thus creating psychic fears among the practitioners. One of the more prominent fears comes from the risk to ego stemming from open discussion of one's interpretations, ideas, and judgments. Initiators of action research will use this principle to allay others' fears and invite participation by pointing out that they, too, will be subject to the same process, and that whatever the outcome, learning will take place.

5) Plural Structure

The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity of views, commentaries and critiques, leading to multiple possible actions and interpretations. This plural structure of inquiry requires a plural text for reporting. This means that there will be many accounts made explicit, with commentaries on their contradictions, and a range of options for action presented. A report, therefore, acts as a support for ongoing discussion among collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.

6) Theory, Practice, Transformation

For action researchers, theory informs practice, practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation. In any setting, people's actions are based on implicitly held assumptions, theories and hypotheses, and with every observed result, theoretical knowledge is enhanced. The two are intertwined aspects of a single change process. It is up to the researchers to make explicit the theoretical justifications for the actions, and to question the bases of those justifications. The ensuing practical applications that follow are subjected to further analysis, in a transformative cycle that continuously alternates emphasis between theory and practice.

Page | 18

UNIT 2

PROCESS ONE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Background of the Study

The background to the study is part of a research provided in the introduction section of the paper. It is a compilation of adequate information that is based on the analysis of the problem or proposed argument, the steps and methods needed to arrive at the design, the implementation of the results achieved, and feasible solutions. It is different from the introduction. The introduction only contains the preliminary information about your research question or thesis topic. It is simply an overview of the research question or thesis topic. But the background to your study is more in-depth - it explains why your research topic or thesis is worth the time of your readers.

The background of the study helps your reader determine if you have a basic understanding of the research problem being investigated and promotes confidence in the overall quality of your analysis and findings.

Lango (2020) argues that a good background to a study should revolve around the independent and dependent variables in the study topic. It should also define the relevance of the study topic and its potential to contribute to knowledge. In writing the background to any study. Lango (2020) proposes an eight- step procedure that the researcher may consider:

STEP 1: Worldview Background of the Study Area STEP 2: Regional View of the Background Study Area STEP 3: National View of the Background Study Area STEP 4: Local View of the Background Study Area STEP 5: FIRST Research Intuition

STEP 6: Background Information and Definitions of Dependent Variable (DV) STEP 7: Background Information and Definitions of Independent Variable (IV) STEP 8: SECOND Researcher’s Intuition

Worldview Background of the Study Area

Depending on where location of the research is based, worldview background takes into considerations a global view of the research area. For example, if located in Ghana, your worldview background will consider studies done in Europe and Asia while studies done in African countries other than Ghana will form the regional view.

National View of the Background Study Area

This section of the background study has a great significance as it brings the study closer to its environment by looking at information available on the topic area in wider national outlook. In most instances this section addresses the background information available on the study within the country of study. It is important to look at the national view in terms of available information on the dependent variable.

Page | 19

Local View of the Background Study Area

At this stage, the researcher looks at the specific target location of the study, focusing on the tenets of the variables with a view to giving grounds for the study. The local view also provides a glimpse into the background gap of the study topic.

Perceived Problem and Statement of The Problem

A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study. A good research problem should address an existing gap in knowledge in the field and lead to further research. The statement of the research problem is very pertinent and must be considered with all the seriousness that it deserves. A research problem can be defined as an issue in need of investigation. Thus, problems spring from puzzle experience. However, a vague feeling that something is wrong or that some theory or policy is not adequate does not constitute a problem. Such a situation is an indication that a problem may exist. Before you proceed with your proposal you must be isolate, shape, and clarify the pertinent variables and relationships that give rise to the problems’ statement. This you can do by reviewing related literature. This will enable you put the problem in appropriate theoretical framework or context. The statement of the problem should indicate the variables of interest to the investigator and the relationships as well as the subject of study. The research problem can be stated in difference ways.

Macmillan (1996) identified six criteria that can be used to evaluate a research problem. These are:

· Is the problem researchable? (i.e., The problem should be such that you can collect, organize and analyzed data).

· Is the problem important? (i.e., significant to practice, policy or theory).

· Does the problem indicate the type of research? (Example: Quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods)

· Does the problem specify the population? (i.e., the target group of study).

· Does the problem specify the variables of interest? (Example: achievement, self- efficacy, perception or motivation).

· Is the problem clear? (i.e., devoid of ambiguity).

A problem statement is a concise description of the problem or issues a researcher seeks to address. The problem statement identifies the current state, the desired future state and any gaps between the two. A problem statement is an important communication tool that can help ensure everyone working on a project knows what the problem they need to address is and why the project is important.

IMPORTANCE OF A PROBLEM STATEMENT

A problem statement is important in the action research process because it helps clearly identify the goals of the research and outlines its scope. It also helps to guide the activities and decisions of the people who are working on the project/research.

KEY ELEMENTS OF A PROBLEM STATEMENT IN RESEARCH

There are four key elements to be considered for inclusion when writing a problem statement:

Page | 20

1. Ideal situation

2. Reality

3. Consequences

4. Proposal

Ideal situation

The problem statement should first describe what the ideal situation would be if there wasn't a problem in need of investigation for any solution. This section identifies the goals and scope of the project and provides a clear understanding of what the ideal environment will be, once the issue has been resolved.

Reality

The next section of the problem statement should describe what the current reality is for your classroom or wider school environment. This section will identify what the problem is, state why it is a problem and identify who the problem is impacting. It will also describe when and where the problem was identified.

Consequences

The next section of the problem statement should identify what the consequences of the problem are. This section describes the effects of the problem by describing how the people affected by the problem are being impacted and quantifying how much the problem is impacting them. Common consequences can include the loss of time, money, resources, competitive advantage, productivity, poor academic achievement, exclusion and more.

Proposal

The proposal section of a problem statement may contain several possible solutions to the problem, but it is important to remember that it does not need to identify a specific solution (proposed solution allowed). The purpose of the proposal section should be to guide the research team on how to research, investigate and resolve the problem.

HOW TO WRITE A PROBLEM STATEMENT

A good problem statement can be created by identifying and answering several questions related to the problem. The process used to write a problem statement should involve answering questions using a method commonly known as 5W2H. This process involves identifying what the problem is, why it is a problem, when and where the problem was identified, who the problem impacts, how they are impacted by the problem and how much of an impact the problem has. You can use the following process to craft a problem statement that addresses the following:

1. Identify the problem.

2. Begin your statement with your ideal situation.

3. Describe current gaps.

4. State the consequences of the problem.

5. Propose addressing the problem.

PROBLEM STATEMENT EXAMPLE

Page | 21

Here is an example of a problem statement for a sales call center: Ideal situation:

Ideally, our sales associates would be able to maximize their production by being able to make more contacts with leads each day.

Reality:

Currently, our sales associates are unable to maximize the number of leads they are contacting each day because they are spending too much time finding qualified leads to call and inserting lead information into the system before making calls. This is a problem because the time our sales associates are spending finding leads and entering lead information into our system could be used to contact more qualified leads and generate more sales. We identified this problem in our sales call center while surveying to gather feedback from our sales associates about what limits their ability to maximize their sales numbers.

Consequences:

Our sales associates currently spend about two hours per day finding qualified leads and another two hours per day entering lead information into our system before they begin making calls. This means our sales associates are only spending half of their workday actually making calls to qualified leads. Because our sales associates are not able to use their entire shift to make contact with leads, their overall sales numbers are being impacted. Our company estimates that our sales associates would be able to make at least double the number of sales if they were able to spend their entire shift contacting qualified leads.

Proposal:

Our company seeks to resolve this issue by creating a process improvement team to identify several potential solutions for how we can reduce the time our sales associates spend not making contact with qualified leads.

Purpose and Objective of the Research

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The Purpose of the Study illustrates what the study will do, which should reflect the statement of the problem. Broadly, a component of the purpose of the study is to describe what the study will do and should include reference to the areas defined in the statement of the problem.

The “Purpose of the Study” section consists of a few short paragraphs describing, aptly, the purpose of your study. Within this section is the “Purpose Statement,” which is a single sentence. The purpose statement succinctly explains (on not more than 1 page) the objectives of the research study. The purpose of the study illustrates what the study will do, which should reflect the statement of the problem. Broadly, a component of the purpose of the study is to describe what the study will do and should include reference to the areas defined in the statement of the problem.

Good purpose statements:

· Flow from the problem statement and actually address the proposed problem

Page | 22

· Are concise and clear

· Answer the question ‘Why are you doing this research?’

· Set the stage by clearly stating, “The purpose of this (qualitative or quantitative) study is to...

A purpose statement will clearly define what is being explored or studied, how it is being explored and where it is being explored. You will typically see quantitative research purpose statements, which focus on comparing measurable variables, or qualitative research purpose statements, which explore a central phenomenon.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Research objectives are the outcomes that you aim to achieve by conducting research. Many research projects contain more than one research objective. Creating strong research objectives can help your organization achieve its overall goals. The purpose of research objectives is to drive the research project, including data collection, analysis and conclusions. Research objectives also help you narrow in on the focus of your research and key variables, guiding you through the research process.

The purpose of research objectives is to drive the research project, including data collection, analysis and conclusions. Research objectives also help you narrow in on the focus of your research and key variables, guiding you through the research process.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES LIES IN THE FACT THAT THEY DETERMINE

· The kind of questions to be asked. In other words, research questions are derived from the objectives.

· The data collection and analysis procedure to be used. Data collection tools are developed from the research objectives.

· The design of the proposed study. Various research designs have different research objectives (wanjohi, 2012).

Page | 23

Example

Using the study on ‘Teacher and Parental Factors Affecting Students’ Academic Performance in Public Basic Schools in East Mamprusi Municipality, Ghana,’ as an example, you may state your research objectives as follows:

1. To assess teacher factors influencing students’ academic performance in public Basic schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.

2. To determine parental factors influencing students’ academic performance in public Basic schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.

3. To ascertain which teacher/parental factors affect students’ academic performance in public Basic schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.

4. To find out what measures can be put in place to improve students’ academic performance in public Basic schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.

Research Questions; Significance of the Study

RESEARCH QUESTION

A research question is a question that a study or research project aims to answer. This question often addresses an issue or a problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is answered in the study’s conclusion. In most studies, the research question is written so that it outlines various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses (Farrugia, Petrisor, Farrokhyar & Bhandari, 2010).

As their name implies, research questions are often grounded on research. As a result, these questions are dynamic; this means researchers can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. While many research projects will focus on a single research question, larger studies often use more than one research question.

IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION

1. Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation.

2. The primary importance of framing the research question is that it narrows down a broad topic of interest into a specific area of study (Creswell, 2014).

3. Research questions, along with hypotheses, also serve as a guiding framework for research.

4. These questions also specifically reveal the boundaries of the study, setting its limits, and ensuring cohesion (Creswell, 2014).

5. Moreover, the research question has a domino effect on the rest of the study. These questions influence factors, such as the research methodology sample size, data collection, and data analysis (Lipowski, 2008).

FINGER CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH QUESTION

Hulley et al. (2007) suggest using a set of criteria- known as the “FINER” criteria-to find out if you have a good research question. The FINER criteria are outlined below:

F – Feasible

A good research question is feasible, which means that the question is well within the researcher’s ability to investigate. Researchers should be realistic about the scale of their research as well as their ability to collect data and complete the research with their skills and the resources available to them. It’s also wise to have a contingency plan in place in case problems arise.

I – Interesting

The ideal research question is interesting not only to the researcher but also to their peers and community. This interest boosts the researcher’s motivation to see the question answered.

N – Novel

Page | 24

Your research question should be developed to bring new insights to the field of study you are investigating. The question may confirm or extend previous findings on the topic you are researching.

E – Ethical

This is one of the more important considerations of making a research question. Your research question and your subsequent study must be something that review boards and the appropriate authorities will approve.

R – Relevant

Aside from being interesting and novel, the research question should be relevant to the scientific community and people involved in your area of study. If possible, your research question should also be relevant to the public’s interest.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In simple terms, the significance of the study is basically the importance of your research. While stating the significance, you must highlight how your research will be beneficial to the development of science and the society in general.

The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why your research was needed. It’s a justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on your research field, it’s contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit from it.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY SIGNIFICANCE

The significance of the study, also known as the rationale of the study, is important to convey to the reader why the research work was important. This may be an academic reviewer assessing your manuscript under peer-review, an examiner reading your thesis a funder reading your grant application or another research group reading your published journal paper. Your academic writing should make clear to the reader what the significance of the research that you performed was, the contribution you made and the benefits of it.

Delimitation of the Study

Delimitation in research refers to the boundaries of the research study, based on the researcher's decision of what to include and what to exclude. It also focuses on the area of interest of the researcher, specifies the scope of the study and determines its limits. That is, taking the research problem from a very large situation to a concrete reality, easy to handle. Delimiting research means specifying in concrete terms our areas of interest in the search, establishing its scope, and deciding the boundaries of space, time, and circumstances that we will likely affect the findings of the study.

Research delimitation means, focus on concrete terms in our area of interest, specify its scope, determine its limits. That is, taking the research problem from a very large situation to a concrete reality, easy to handle. In such a way, delimiting research means specifying in concrete terms our areas of interest in the search, establishing its scope, and deciding the boundaries of space, time, and circumstances that we will impose on our study.

IMPORTANCE OF DELIMITING THE PROBLEM

Page | 25

Delimitations narrow the study to make it more manageable and relevant to what the researcher is trying to prove. There are several aspects that research can present, according to which a series of parameters can be developed, which will help the researcher to correctly generate the study and offer the desired results. Thus, as one of the most important aspects that all research

presents are summarized in the problem, and this is the centre from which all the research starts.

It marks the beginning of the study and positions the guidelines that must be followed. But for all this to be possible, it is necessary that according to the problem certain aspects must be taken into consideration, such as its correct delimitation.

Operational Definition of Terms

Operational definition of terms refers to a detailed explanation of the technical terms and measurements used during data collection.

Organization of the Study

Broadly, components of the organization of the Study provide a map that may guide readers through the reading and understanding of the research report. Specifically, each component of the Organization of the Study is to briefly establish how each chapter is constructed to achieve the research objectives.

Page | 26

UNIT 3

PROCESS TWO IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Meaning of Reviewing Related Literature

The “literature” in research means the works you referred to or consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem.

A literature review is an assessment of a body (or bodies) of literature that pertains to a specific question. A literature review is helpful in several ways. It not only helps researchers glean the ideas of others interested in a particular research question (through important research findings and theories), but it also lets them read about the results of similar or related studies. Literature reviews also give researchers ideas about areas where more research needs to be done (known as gaps). Thus, researchers often weigh information from a literature review in light of their own interests and situation. There are two important points here: Researchers need to be able not only to locate other work dealing with their intended area of study but also to be able to evaluate this work in terms of its relevance to the research question of interest.

Before planning the details of the study, researchers usually read written related materials to the problem or topic in detail to find out what has been written about the topic or had been done. Opinions of experts in the field, as well as other research studies are of interest to the researcher in performing this important duty. Such reading is referred to as a review of the literature. The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis/"digging" of documents containing information related to the research problem. These documents include periodicals, abstracts, review books, and other research reports.

Purpose of literature review

· It places the paper within the context of known research on the subject; focuses one’s own research topic.

· Provides thorough knowledge of previous studies;

· Introduces seminar works.

· It identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems;

· It indicates potential directions for future research.

· Indicates timely nature of one’s research, if applicable

· Identifies resources previously unknown or unexplored

· Suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.

SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

A researcher needs to be familiar with three basic types of sources as he or she begins to search for information related to the research question. These terms apply both to computerized searching (online or electronic) as well as manual searching (using print/paper tools to locate print/paper sources). Regardless of the tools involved, the search process is similar.

Page | 27

General reference tools are the sources researchers often refer to first. In effect, they tell where to look to locate other sources such as articles, books, reports, and other documents that deal directly with the research question. General reference tools are usually either indexes, which list the author, title, and place of publication of articles and other materials, or abstracts, which

give a brief summary or annotation of various publications, as well as their author, title, and

place of publication. Historically, indexes and abstracts were only available in paper format, but since the advent of computers and the Internet, most libraries have access to indexes and abstracts through online databases containing electronic index es, abstracts, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. For example, the Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE) and Resources in Education (RIE), the indexes most frequently used by researchers in education, are no longer available as distinct publications in paper format. Instead, since 2002 the information they contain is now only available electronically in E RIC (Education Resources Information Center), an online database of education research and information sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education and the Institute of Education Sciences. (We’ll show you how to do an ERIC search of the literature later in this chapter.) Similarly, Psychological Abstracts, the general reference most commonly used by researchers in psychology, is now only available through Psyc INFO, a computer database compiled by the American Psychological Association (APA) that includes abstracts and bibliographic citations for journal articles, evaluation reports, conference papers and proceedings, speeches, and the like.

Empirical and Theoretical Review; Sources of Literature

EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

An empirical literature review is more commonly called a systematic literature review and it examines past empirical studies to answer a particular research question. In empirical literature, established research methodologies and procedures are systematically applied to answer the questions of interest.

Theoretical Review

Anfara and Mertz (2015) are of the view that theoretical framework is any empirical or quasi- empirical theory of social and or psychological processes, at a variety of levels that can be applied to the understanding of phenomena. Collins and Stockton (2018) have argued that a strong theoretical framework allows the researcher to reveal existing predispositions about a study and assist in data coding and interpretation. Theoretical framework is based upon theories that have already been tested. These are theories that are the result of painstaking research conducted earlier by other investigators (Akintoye, 2015).

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

There are two main sources one can review one’s literature from: primary, secondary

sources.

1. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of experience, research, experiments and investigations.

They are found in journal articles, in conference papers, reports, and minutes of meetings, research papers, thesis, as well as interview and questionnaires.

Page | 28

2. Secondary sources are summaries of information collected from primary sources, or books and articles in which other researchers report the results of their research based on primary data such as translations, summaries, reviews, abstracts, commentaries and guidebooks.

NB Some authors add the third source which is tertiary source

· Tertiary sources include textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias, guides, and handbooks.

Note that they are generally weak support for your own arguments.

STEPS INVOLVED IN A LITERATURE SEARCH

The following steps are involved in a literature search:

1. Define the research problem as precisely as possible.

2. Look at relevant secondary sources (these can include research reviews).

3. Select and peruse one or two appropriate general reference works.

4. Formulate search terms (key words or phrases) pertinent to the problem or question of interest.

5. Search for relevant primary sources using appropriate general reference tools.

6. Obtain and read relevant primary sources, and note and summarize key points in the sources.

Writing the Review Chapter

It is important that one undertakes a literature review on a subject before actually conducting a research project. Having gone through the steps involved in identifying a literature review which includes identifying potential references, locating references, reading relevant references and taken notes, organizing, analyzing and integrating the references; the final step is to write the review. This session presents what should into the review chapter and how to organize the materials.

Parts of the Literature

After reading and taken notes on the various sources collected, researchers can prepare the final review. Fraenkel and Wallen (1993) have identified four parts of the literature review. These include:

1. The introduction

The introduction briefly describes the nature of the research problem. The researcher also explains in this section what led him/her to investigate the topic and why it is an important topic to investigate. It implies that the introduction should identify your topic, some discussion of the significance of that topic and a thesis statement that outlines what conclusion you will draw from your analysis and synthesis of the literature.

2. The Body

Page | 29

In the body, discuss and assess the research according to specific organizational principles rather than addressing each source separately. Most, if not all, paragraphs should discuss more than one source. Avoid addressing your sources alphabetically as this does not assist in developing the themes or key issues central to your review.

The body of the review briefly reports what others have found or thought about the research problem. How is the related literature discussed in the review? Related studies are usually discussed together, grouped under subheadings to make the review easier to read. Major studies are described in more detail, while less important work can be referred to in just a line or two. In most cases this is done by referring to several studies that reported similar results in a single sentence as shown at the previous sub session.

3. The Summary

The summary of the review ties together the main threads revealed in the literature reviewed. The summary also presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date. Provide a summary of the findings from the literature review by explaining what your analysis of the material leads you to conclude about the overall state of the literature, what it provides and where it is lacking. You can also provide suggestions for future research or explain how your future research will fill the gaps in the existing body of work on that topic.

Appraisal of Literature

Page | 30

UNIT 4

PROCESS THREE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Methodology: Research Design

A research design is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta- analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to seek answers to research questions.

Research design is also seen as the conceptual blueprint within which research is conducted.

A researcher's overall plan for obtaining answers to the research questions or for testing the research hypotheses is referred to as the research design. Research design is thus a plan or blueprint that specifies how data relating to a given problem should be collected and analyzed.

It provides the procedural outline for the conduct of any investigation. What we mean here is that the research design spells out the basic strategies that the researcher adopts to develop information that is accurate and interpretable. The design, therefore, incorporates some of the

most important methodological decisions that the researcher makes in conducting a research study.

Gay (1992) notes that, the research design indicates the basic structure of the study; the nature of the questions and the variables involved in the study. The design thus indicates whether there is an intervention and what the intervention is, the nature of any comparisons to be made, the method to be used to control extraneous variables and enhance the study’s repeatability, the timing and frequency of data collection, the setting in which the data collection is to take place, and the nature of communications with subjects.

Description of Study Setting

The study setting is the physical, social, or experimental context within which research is conducted. In a research paper, describing this setting accurately is crucial since the results and their interpretation may depend heavily on it. For example, in a paper that describes the social behavior of chimpanzees, the authors may need to provide the following details about the research setting: where the chimpanzees were observed (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees observed and whether they belonged to the same social group, the geographic location, the period of study, the time of year/weather conditions, the availability of resources like food/water/shelter, presence of environmental threats, and so on.

The research setting, the environment within which studies are run has important consequences for experimental design, the type of data that can be collected and the interpretation of results. So, for example running a study in an experimental laboratory may allow you to control variables in a way you cannot do in field work, and the results may be criticized for not reflecting real life. It is often important to conduct complementary studies in various research settings in order to build arguments for the generalizability of findings.

Page | 31

Population, Sample and Sampling Technique

POPULATION

In a study, an investigator may be interested in a group of people. The group becomes the investigator's target group. Examples of such groups may include "all

teachers", "all senior secondary school students", "all principals in training colleges in Ghana, "all State Registered Nurses at the Oti region", "all lower primary pupils in 'Krachi East Municipality". The target group about which the researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusions is known as the population. Polit and Hungler (1996) defined a population as the entire aggregation of cases that meet designated set of criteria. It must be noted that whatever the basic unit, the population always comprises the entire aggregation of elements in which the researcher is interested.

Population refers to all the members of a particular group. It is the group of interest to the research, the group to whom the researcher would like to generalize the results of a study.

Population can be any size and must have at least one or several characteristics that distinguish it from any other population.

A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main focus of a scientific query. It is for the benefit of the population that researches are done. However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot test every individual in the population because it is too expensive and time-consuming. This is the reason why researchers rely on sampling techniques. A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics. All individuals or objects within a certain population usually have a common, binding characteristic or trait.

TWO TYPES OF POPULATION IN RESEARCH TARGET POPULATION

Target population refers to the ENTIRE group of individuals or objects to which researchers are interested in generalizing the conclusions. The target population usually has varying characteristics and it is also known as the theoretical population.

Accessible Population

This is the portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access. The accessible population is usually a subset of the target population and is also referred to as the study population. It is from the accessible population that researchers draw their samples

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling technique refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. Generally, sampling enables the researcher to study a relatively small number of units in place of the target population, and to obtain data that are representative of the whole target population.

SAMPLE

A sample in a research study refers to any group on which information is obtained for the study. Sampling is concerned with selection of a sample. It is important in descriptive research

Page | 32

because the subjects selected should be a true representation of the population. If not, the conclusion will not be valid.

A sample consists of a carefully selected subset of the units that comprise the population. In most cases researchers opt for incomplete coverage and study only a small proportion of the population. This small proportion of the population is the sample. Sampling is thus the process of choosing the units of the target population which are to be included in the study.

In sampling, the units that make up the samples and population are referred to as elements. The element is the most basic unit about which information is collected. In social research, the elements are usually humans.

Reasons for Sampling

· In many cases a complete coverage of the population is not possible.

· Complete coverage may not offer substantial advantage over a sample survey.

· Sampling provides a better option since it addresses the survey population in a short period of time and produces comparable and equally valid results.

· Studies based on samples require less time and produce quick answers.

· Sampling is less demanding in terms of labour requirement, since it requires a small portion of the target population.

· It is thought to be more economical, since it contains fewer people and requires less printed material, fewer general costs (travelling, accommodation, etc) and fewer experts

· Samples are thought to offer more detailed information and a high degree of accuracy because they deal with relatively small numbers of units.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLING DESIGN

1. Truly representative (representativeness is not the property of the sample but of the procedure by which the sample is obtained

2. Having small sampling error

3. Economically viable

4. Optimum size

5. Similar to population/universe

TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling techniques can be grouped into two categories. These are Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling.

Probability Sampling

In a probability sampling, the subjects are selected randomly in such a way that the researcher knows the probability of selecting each member of the population. In fact each member of the population or sub-group has an equal chance of being selected into the study. Probability sampling therefore goes with random sampling. The second feature is that is equal chance/opportunity is given to each member of the group. It reduces the biases in the sampling.

The hallmark of probability sampling is the random selection of elements from the population. What is a random selection process? A random selection process is one in which each element

Page | 33

in the population has an equal, independent chance of being selected. Probability sampling methods includes: Simple random sampling; Systematic sampling; Stratified sampling; and cluster sampling.

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is the most basic of the probability designs. This type of sampling gives all units of the target population an equal chance of being selected. The simple random sampling is appropriate when Simple a population of study is similar in characteristics of interest. The sample units are selected by means of two main methods or strategies. These are the lottery method and the random number method.

The Lottery Method

Choosing respondents by the lottery method follows a procedure that can be described in the following steps.

Step 1: Identify or construct a sampling frame. Constructing a sampling frame is preparing a list of the units of the target population, that is, the list of all elements in the population. Such frames are, for instance, the electoral register in the area, students’ records and include names and if possible, addresses of sample units in alphabetical order and numbered accordingly.

Step 2: Write names listed in sample from or their numbers on slips of paper and put in a container.

Step 3: Mix well and remove one slip or paper at a time from the container without looking into it.

Step 4: Register or record the number or name on the slip. When a slip is selected and recorded, it is thrown back into the container before the next one is picked. The process is continued until the required number of respondents is recorded. If an already drawn number is selected for a second or third time it is ignored, that is, it is thrown back into the container.

The Table of Random Numbers Method

This method is similar to the lottery method, except that the container and strips are replaced by already generated tables of random numbers. These are usually found at the back of statistical textbooks. It Choosing the sample by using the random numbers method involves the following steps.

Step 1: A sampling frame is identified or constructed as in the lottery method. Thus, decide on the sample size.

Step 2: Appropriate tables of random numbers are selected

Step 3 Numbers are picked from the tables randomly and registered, the name in the sampling frame corresponding to the numbers constitute the sample. For example, assume that we are interested in the attitudes of JSS teachers in Cape Coast Municipality to the Best Teacher Award scheme in Ghana. A sample of 100 teachers are required cut of 5000 JSS teachers in the municipality.^'

Systematic Sampling

Page | 34

This method is a modified form of simple random sampling. It involves selecting the subjects from a population list in a systematic rather than a random fashion. A systematic sampling consists of the selection of Kth term from a list of all elements in a population beginning with a randomly selected element. For example, if there is the need to select 100 subjects from a population of 50,000.

Step 1. Select/compute the sampling fraction (the Kth term) which is N/n where N is the number of units in the target population and n the number of units of the sampling. In the example above N⁼50,000 n⁼100; sampling fraction is Kth = 50,000/100 = 500^th. Every nth would therefore correspond to 500^th subject/element.

Step 2. Select the first element randomly using lottery or random numbers. In this example that would be some number between I - 500.

Step 3. Identify all numbers between 0 - N that result from adding Kth to the random number. The process is repeated until N is reached. Suppose 240 was randomly selected as a starting point, in step 2, the first sample chosen would be the 240^th number the next subject would be the 740^th i.e., 240+500, the third would be 1,240 i.e., 740+500 etc.

Locate the names on the sampling frame that corresponds to the number drawn above, example the names corresponding to 240^th, 740^th etc.

Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into a number homogeneous groups or strata. Each group contains subjects with similar characteristics. A sample is then drawn from each group or stratum. The sub samples make up the final sample for the study. The division of the population into strata or homogeneous group is based on one or more criteria, for example, sex, age economic status, professional status. For instance, group A, or the stratum A might contain males and group B or stratum B females. In order to obtain a sample representative of the whole population in terms of gender or sex, a random selection of subjects from group A and B must be taken. The sample size can be proportionate or disproportionate to the units of target population. For example, the target population, consisting of equal number of males and females, may be divided into two strata or homogeneous groups’ males and females.

Step 1: identify the stratification variable. The target population is divided into a number of strata/homogeneous groups according to the number of the significant groups in the population

Step 2: The sampling frames for each of the groups are identified. If not available, relevant sampling frames must be developed.

Step 3: Employing one of the methods• discussed above simple random Sampling, systematic etc, a sample is drawn from each group. This can be proportionate or disproportionate to the number of units in the population

Step 4: The individual samples are merged into one, and this constitutes the sample for the study.

Cluster Sampling

Page | 35

When population is large and widely dispersed, gathering a simple random sample poses administrative problems. Cluster sampling is used when it is impossible or impractical to sample individual elements from the population as a whole or when there is no exhaustive list of all elements. In cluster sampling, there is a successive random selection of naturally

occurring groups or areas and then selecting individual elements from the chosen group or

areas. Thus, a characteristic of this sampling method is that first groups of elements (clusters) are selected (e.g., schools, classes, suburbs) and then individual elements are selected from these clusters. To choose the clusters and the respondents from the clusters one of the methods discussed above can be employed.

Cluster sampling is considerably more economical and practical than other types of probability sampling, particularly when the population is large and widely dispersed.

Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, elements are selected by non-random methods. There is no way to estimate the probability that each element has the chance of being selected in a non- probability sample. Usually, not every element in the population has a chance of being selected.

This method is less strict and makes no claim for representativeness. It is generally left up to the researcher or the interviewer to decide which sample units should be chosen. It is generally employed in exploratory research observational research and qualitative research.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling is less likely than probability sampling to produce accurate and representative samples. Despite the disadvantage that arise from their non-representativeness, they are far less complicated to set up, are considerably less expensive, and can prove perfectly adequate where researchers do not intend to generalize their findings beyond the sample in question or where they are simply piloting a survey questionnaire as a prelude to their main study. The major kinds of non-probability sampling are as follow”:

Convenience or Accidental Sampling: A convenience is a group of individuals who are (conveniently) available for study. The procedure thus involves selecting a sample based on their availability to the researcher. They could be students at a school canteen who are interviewed on their views about the quality of food served, late comers who are interviewed on their reasons for coming to school late, third year Junior High School students at a school who are interviewed on their Senior High School choices, etc. A major disadvantage of this sampling techniques is the likelihood of bias.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling: This is selecting a sample based on previous knowledge of a population and the specific purpose of the research using personal judgment. The researcher thus selects subjects for the study based on their knowledge about the issue under study. The subjects are presumed to have some special qualification to be included in the study. This is different from convenience sampling in the sense that the researcher does not simply use whoever is available, but rather the researcher uses his/her judgment to select a sample that he/she believes, based on prior information, will provide the needed data. The major disadvantage of this procedure is that the researcher’s judgment may be wrong or erroneous. The researcher may also not be correct in estimating the representativeness of a sample or their expertise regarding the needed information.

Page | 36

Snow Ball Sampling: This is used where the researcher does not have access to or finds it difficult locating a special population or all members of the required sample. It is mostly used in qualitative field research. The researcher locates a small number of individuals who have the requisite characteristics and collects data on them and asking those individuals to provide

information needed to locate other members of that population who they happen to know. The

contracted individuals lead him to some others and the process continues until the required sample size is obtained.

Quota Sampling: This involves generating a matrix describing the characteristics of the target population and assigning proportions to each cell in the matrix after which data is collected from persons having all the characteristics of a given cell. The characteristics may be gender, age, qualification, educational level, years of working experience, ethnicity, political preference, learning problems, etc. For instance, in a population of 120 men and 80 women, a researcher may want a sample consisting of 40% of each sex in the population.

This will mean getting 40% × 120 = 48 and 40% × 80 = 32 making a total sample size of 80. Planning and Implementing Interventions Activities

Intervention is the process of taking action on the strategies and activities that have been

planned during the planning stage of the first cycle. Intervention is also called the implementation of the activities as agreed upon by the various groups involved in the action research.

Action or intervention refers to the specific strategies, activities, media, materials, innovation, or any changes implemented to achieve the intended improvement. To make the implementation intervention (pre-test or pre-action survey), at the end of each cycle (post- tests), and at the end of cycle 3 (post-action survey). The data is to be collected by the researcher (This is possible because the test and survey are not conducted during the intervention. If the data collection is conducted simultaneously with the intervention, it must be done by one or more collaborator).

The intervention strategies selected help in formulating the topic for the research and makes clear the purpose of the research. This planning phase would take into consideration the creativity, practicality and originality, researching into them, application to the age, interest and abilities of the pupils, time duration, allocating responsibilities, monitoring strategies, The intervention to be considered can be modern and innovative adaptations of a combination of aspects of strategies from creative approach, talk for learning, questioning, group work, Teaching Learning Materials, to mention but a few.

The intervention is usually done in a period of three to five weeks. It spells out the number of days to be used in a week, the duration for each day, the intervention objective and strategies for each day (optional) and the intervention process.

Problems Encountered

Data Collection Instruments

Data collection refers to obtaining relevant information, either verbal or quantitative regarding the major ideas of the hypotheses or research questions for the purpose of answering them.

Page | 37

In a descriptive research data may be obtained through a variety of techniques as follows:

i. Observation guide

ii. Questionnaire

iii. Interview guide

iv. Tests

v. Attitude scale

OBSERVATION GUIDE

Observation is one of the oldest methods of data collection. Literally, observation means a method of data collection that employs vision as its main means of data collection. In observational studies researchers collect data on the current status of subjects by watching them and listening and recording what they observe rather than asking questions about them. An observation may take many forms/types.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

There are several types of observation; some are more popular than others. Some types/forms of observation are Participant and Non-Participant observation.

In general, the degree of the observers’ involvement in the observation varies from no participation to full participation. In non-participant observation, observers study their subjects from outside the group without becoming a part of the environment of the observed. In, participant observation they actually become members of the group they are supposed to be studying. They observe from inside the group and, ideally, their identity as a researcher is not known.

By participating actively in a group, one may gain insight into the structure of the group and obtain certain types of information not accessible in any other way. On the other hand, by becoming emotionally involved the researcher may lose objectivity.

1. Structured and Unstructured observation

Structured observation employs a formal and strictly organised procedure, with a set of well- defined observation categories. It is subject to high levels of control and differentiation. It is organised and planned before the study begins. Unstructured observation is loosely organised and the process of observation is largely left up to the observer to define.

2. Active/ participant and Passive/ non participant Observation

This type of observation refers to the degree to which the observer is involved in the process and purpose of observation. Active observation presupposes full engagement of the observer in the course of the study. In passive observation, the role of the observer is seen as being just a strict recording of data. In this ease observation is a job to be done in an objective and neutral fashion

3. Direct and Indirect Observation

Direct observation studies the subjects it intends to explain, for example, if the study intend to explain the patterns of conflicts in marital homes, and observation involves named couples, this is a direct observation. Indirect observation does not involve the subject of study, either because the subject refuses to take part in the study, a direct observation is not possible, or the

Page | 38

subject is deceased. Instead, the observer/researcher observes the physical times the phenomena under study that the subject has left behind and makes conclusions about the subject.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

a. It provides information when other methods are not effective,

b. It employs a less complicated and less time-consuming procedures of subject selection.

c. It can offer data when respondents Are unable and/or unwilling to correlation-operate or to offer information.

d. It approaches reality in its natural structure and studies events as they evolve.

e. It offers first-hand information without relying on the reports of others,

f. It is relatively inexpensive.

Limitations of Observation

· It cannot be employed when large groups or extensive events are studied

· It cannot provide information about past, future or unpredictable events.

· It cannot study opinions or attitudes directly.

· It is a relatively laborious and time-consuming method.

· It cannot offer quantitative generalizations on the results.

QUESTIONNAIRE

A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purpose of a survey or statistical study. Questionnaires are commonly used to gather first-hand information from a large audience, in the form of a survey. There are different types of questionnaires in practice and the type of questionnaire to be used usually depends on the purpose of the survey and the type of data that has to be collected.

Questionnaires are highly practical and can be carried out by any number of people, and the results can be quickly quantified as well. Over the years, this form of conducting research has also been proven to be more scientifically accurate, as compared to other quantitative research tools.

The use of questionnaire is very common in the social sciences, including education. In most cases questionnaires are employed as the only method of data collection. questionnaire consists of a list of questions or statements relating to the aims of the study, the hypotheses and research questions to be verified and answered, to which the respondent is required to answer by writing.

FORMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE

The Close -Ended Form

Questionnaires that call for short, check-mark (list) responses are known as restricted, structured or close-ended type. Here you mark a Yes or No, rank alternatives provided based on how one feels about the issue, check an item from a list of suggested responses or scale responses.

Page | 39

The following is an example that illustrates a close-ended question.

How would you rate the adequacy of textbooks in your school library? Excellent Good Fair Poor

Other - please specify

The open – Ended Form or the unstructured or unrestricted

This type calls for a free response in the respondents' own words.

Example: What is the textbook situation in your school library? The open form generally provides for greater depth of response. The respondents reveal their frame of reference and possibly the reasons for their responses. But because they require greater effort on the part of the respondents, returns are often meager. Also, an open-ended item can sometimes be difficult to interpret, tabulate and summarise in the research report. Many questionnaires include both open and close-ended type items.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire as a method of data collection has strengths and weaknesses and thus advantages and disadvantages that the researcher must be aware of.

Strengths and weaknesses are factors that have a significant impact on a researcher's decision about whether or not to use questionnaires in the study. The advantages and limitations, which most researchers and writers consider as significant are listed below.

Economy

Questionnaires are less expensive than other methods - interview and observation. It can be sent through mail interview and observation cannot hence the expenses and time involved in training interviewers and observers as well as time spent on interviewing and observation are not involved in the use of questionnaire.

Reachability

The use of questionnaires promises a wider coverage since researchers can approach respondents more easily than other methods. They are not affected by problems of no- contacts.

Uniformity in Questions

Questions are a stable consistent and uniform measure; without variation can be completed at the respondent's convenience they offer greater assurance of anonymity.

LIMITATION TO LITERATE POPULATION

The questionnaire as a tool for data collection cannot be used/ administered on illiterates, and people who are too young to read and write.

Motivation of the Respondents

The use of questionnaire does not offer opportunities for motivating the respondent to participate in the survey or to answer the questions.

Sampling

Page | 40

The characteristics of non-response associated with questionnaire especially the mail- questionnaire is likely to affect the representativeness of the sample. This may result in a biased final sample.

Lack of opportunity to collect additional information

Questionnaires do not provide an opportunity to collect additional information through observation, probing, prompting and clarification of questions while they are being completed.

INTERVIEW

An interview is a type of data collection instrument which is characteristics with the use of verbal questioning as its principal technique of data collection. It involves posing questions to respondents for answer face-to-face situation. It also represents direct attempt by the researcher to obtain reliable and valid measures of characteristics behaviours, attitudes, etc. in the form of verbal responses from one or more respondents.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

There are many types of interviews, each of which differs from the others in structure, purpose, role of the interviewer, number of respondents involved in each interview, and form and frequency of administration. These types, however, fall under two main categories. These are structured and unstructured.

Structured interviews are interviews in which the specific questions to be asked and the order of the questions are predetermined and set by the researcher. They are based on a strict procedure and a highly structured interview guide, which is no different from questionnaire. A structured interview is in reality a questionnaire read by the interviewer as prescribed by the researcher. The r i gi d structure determines the operations of this research instrument and allows no freedom to make adjustment to any of its elements, such as contents, wording or order of questions. The instrument of predetermined questions is known as an interview schedule. The interview is based on this schedule, and strict adherence to the questions and the instructions is paramount. The process of interviewing, using this type of interview, is referred to as scheduled interview.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews, in contrast, have no strict procedures to follow of the kind described above. There are no restrictions in the wording, of the question, the order of question or the interview schedule. Thus, the interviewers have the discretion to form questions on the spot, probe into issues and in some cases follow the order dictated by the situation. The structure of these interviews is flexible and the restrictions minimal. An instrument used in such an interview is called an interview guide. The guide is not as detailed as the schedule. It merely outlines the kind of information required

Individual versus Group Interview

When individual interviews are employed the researcher interviews one respondent at a time. This is the most common form of interviewing. The interviewer asks the various types of interview questions, - direct and follow up questions, probing questions, structuring and interpreting questions, - to the individual/one respondent who in turn answers these questions.

Page | 41

In group interviews, more than one respondent is involved in the interview situation. They are also addressed by the interviewer simultaneously. In a small-scale group two people are interviewed concurrently. On a large scale a group of about 20 persons might be interviewed. For example, a husband and a wife might be interviewed together on a small scale whiles a class of students might be interviewed together on a large scale.

PROCEDURE FOR CONTACTING RESPONDENTS AND INTRODUCING THE STUDY RECORDING THE RESPONSES

The answers to questions asked during the interview can be secured against the time the results will be analysed in three modes/ways namely a by making a mental note of the answers by making a written record of the answers by making a tape or video tape recording of the interview.

Mental Note: This is the process where research workers rely on the power of their memory for storing the information obtained during an interview.

Written Records: Nwana (1992) identified two forms of written records that can be made for the responses. In the first form, to which he referred to as data-blank, the questions to be asked are listed on paper with blank spaces provided for the answers to be written in by the investigator or interviewer whiles the interview is in progress.

In the second form of recording which he referred to as checklist, the questions are listed on paper and alongside each question, a set of most probable responses are supplied. The interviewer records the responses of the respondent merely by ticking off the appropriate responses as they are made.

Tape Recording

This may be sound tape recording which employs a conventional tape recorder to record on magnetic tape only the sounds i.e. the questions posed by the investigator and the answers given by the respondent.

It could also be videotape recording which records on magnetic tape both sounds and the pictures of the interview.

It must be noted that the respondent needs to be informed during the time of familiarization that you intend to record the conversation between you and him/her and his/her permission sought for doing so. The mode of recording should also be made known to the respondent.

ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS

The popularity of interview is often justified in terms of several of its qualities which give it an advantage over other methods of data collection. The advantages of interviewing include the following:

Flexibility - interviews can be adjusted to meet many diverse situations

High response rate - interviewing attracts a relatively high response rate.

Page | 42

Easy administration - interviews do not require respondents to have the ability to read. Opportunity to observe non-verbal behaviour - such opportunities is obviously not available when questionnaires are used.

Capacity for correcting misunderstanding by respondents, more complex questions, can be 4 used because the presence of the interviewer can assist in correcting any misunderstanding as well as assisting answering the questions.

LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS

Despite its advantages, interviewing is limited by a number of factors. The following are the most important:

1. Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods such as questionnaires.

2. They are attacked for the "interviewer factor" and the possible bias associated with it.

3. They are more inconvenient than other methods such as using questionnaires.

4. It is less effective than other methods when sensitive issues are discussed. For example, many people prefer to write about sensitive issues than to talk about them.

5. It offers less anonymity than other methods since the interviewer knows the identity, residence, type of housing, etc.

Types of Data Collected

Data Analysis Plan

Preparation and Organization of Data

In research we have to collect data and the data collected must be analysed to enable us solve a problem or explain and describe a phenomenon under consideration. As researchers, whatever decision we reach after analysing data should have conclusion validity. Conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions you reach about relationships and patterns in your data are reasonable (Trochim, 2001). Conclusion validity is important because in a study such as the relationship between two variables, a researcher can conclude that there is no relationship when in fact there is or he/she can conclude that there is a relationship when in fact there is not.

The problem of a researcher concluding that

there is no relationship when in fact there is of concern to researchers. In order to avoid error in our conclusions, that is, to achieve conclusion validity, there is the need to take appropriate steps to analyze and interpret our data and the results.

Preparation and Organization of Data (Data Analysis Plan)

The data collected in a study must be prepared before it is analyzed. Data preparation involves editing, scoring, coding and entering the data into the computer, if a computer will be used to analyze the data. Even if the data will be analyzed manually, it must be prepared before it is analyzed.

THE PROCESS OR ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN DATA PREPARATION AND ORGANIZATION.

Page | 43

Editing: Editing of research data involves (a) correcting mistakes in the data if possible and

(b) deciding whether some of the data collected should be deleted from or kept for data analysis later.

Editing of data is intended to detect and as far as possible eliminate errors in the data to ensure conclusion validity.

For instance, data collected using questionnaires may be incomplete. They may contain inaccurate information which you the researcher must examine before proceeding to analyze it. It is at the editing stage that you do this examination. Similarly, the best interviewers are liable to make errors, omit to ask certain questions or to record answers to some questions. Thus, interview responses must be edited before proceeding with the analysis of the data.

Such editing can be done by the interviewers immediately after they have completed each interview. In the same vein, before the completed questionnaires can be regarded as ready for coding, tabulation and analysis, they should be checked for completeness, accuracy and uniformity.

For completeness, you must check and ensure that there is an answer to every question. Sometimes, you have to fill the gap, if any, by deducing from other data on the questionnaire. With regard to accuracy, you must try to check whether the answers are accurate. You must look for inconsistencies.

Inaccuracy may be due to carelessness or to a conscious attempt to give misleading answers by respondents or even the interviewer. Remember that some of the ways of data collection are self-report procedures. .

You also have to edit your data in terms of uniformity. This process helps you as a researcher to find out whether in interviewing, for example, questions and instructions have been followed uniformly, if different people administered the instruments.

Scoring: The next activity in data preparation is scoring, when a study is quantitative in nature, all instruments administered should be scored accurately and consistently. For self- developed instruments such as questionnaires, you must develop a scoring procedure to guide you. Steps for scoring each item and for arriving at a total score must be delineated and carefully followed. For instance, if a study uses an attitudinal scale, the negative and positive statements should be stored properly. For example, when "strongly agree" to the statement "I enjoy school work" is scored 5 on a five-point scale the statement "I find school work boring" should be scored 1, if an individual "strongly agree" with it. Scoring is usually not applicable to qualitative data.

Coding: Coding is one other activity at the data preparation stage. Coding does not mean the same thing in qualitative and quantitative research.

In qualitative research, coding refers to the process of categorizing data. That is, coding in qualitative research means the process by which the researcher makes sense out of text data, divides it into text or image segments, labels the segments, examines codes for overlap and collapses these codes into themes. The codes are just labels to describe a segment of text. Examples are "poor learners", "problem children", "disruptions during the class", "students talking to each other',', Teach (1990) and Creswell (1994) recommend the following steps in coding qualitative data.

Page | 44

Read through all of the transcriptions carefully and jot down in the margins some ideas based on the text

Pick one document (e.g., one interview) and go through it, asking the question "what it is about?" Write down in the margin in two or three words and draw a box around it.

Begin the process of coding the document by identifying text segments, placing a bracket around them and assigning a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning of text segment.

After coding an entire text, make a list of code words. Cluster together similar codes and look for redundant codes. The objective is to reduce a long list of codes to a smaller, more manageable number.

Take this list and go back to the data and circle specific quotes from participants that support the codes

Reduce the list of codes to get 5 to 7 themes or descriptions of the setting or participants. Themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the database.

From the coding and the themes, construct a narrative description and possibly a visual display of the findings for your research report.

Page | 45

UNIT 5

PROCESS FOUR IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion

Data analysis is a process of inspecting cleaning, transforming and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. It has multiple facets and approaches encompassing diverse techniques.

Approaches to Data Analysis (Quantitative and Qualitative)

The methods of analysis employed in experiments are quantitative and qualitative techniques. Quantitative analysis emphasizes numbers, measurements, deductive logic, statistical, control and objective whiles Qualitative focus on collecting data that is relational, interpretive, subjective, and inductive. In contrast, qualitative data is often in the form of language, while quantitative data typically involves numbers. Quantitative researchers require large numbers of participants for validity, while qualitative researchers use a smaller number of participants, and can even use one (Hatch, 2002). In the past, quantitative and qualitative educational researchers rarely interacted, sometimes holding contempt for each other’s work; and even published articles in separate journals based on having distinct theoretical orientations in terms of data collection. Overall, there is a greater appreciation for both quantitative and qualitative approaches, with scholars finding distinct value in each approach, yet in many circles the debate continues over which approach is more beneficial for educational research and in educational contexts.

The goal of qualitative data collection is to build a complex and nuanced description of social or human problems from multiple perspectives. The flexibility and ability to use a variety of data collection techniques encompasses a distinct stance on research. Qualitative researchers are able to capture conversations and everyday language, as well as situational attitudes and beliefs. Qualitative data collection is able to be fitted to the study, with the goal of collecting the most authentic data, not necessarily the most objective. To researchers who strictly use quantitative methods, qualitative methods may seem wholly unstructured, eclectic, and idiosyncratic; however, for qualitative researchers these characteristics are advantageous to their purpose. Quantitative research depends upon structure and is bounded to find relationship among variables and units of measurement. Quantitative research helps make sense of large amounts of data. Both quantitative and qualitative research help us address education challenges by better identifying what is happening, with the goal of identifying why it is happening, and how we can address it.

Most educator-researchers who engage in research projects in schools and classrooms utilize qualitative methodologies for their data collection. Educator-researchers also use mixed methods that focus on qualitative methods, but also use quantitative methods, such as surveys, to provide a multidimensional approach to inquiring about their topic. While qualitative methods may feel more comfortable, there is a methodological rationale for using quantitative research.

Page | 46

Research methodologists use two distinct forms of logic to describe research: induction and deduction. Inductive approaches are focused on developing new or emerging theories, by explaining the accumulation of evidence that provides meaning to similar circumstances.

Deductive approaches move in the opposite direction, and create meaning about a particular

situation by reasoning from a general idea or theory about the particular circumstances. While

qualitative approaches are inductive – observe and then generate theories, for example – qualitative researchers will typically initiate studies with some preconceived notions of potential theories to support their work.

Steps for Analysing Data

Software Tools for Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis

Software tools for quantitative and qualitative data analysis

There is a whole range of software packages and tools for data analyses and visualization. These tools are designed to simplify and optimize the creation of data-driven business intelligence to deliver accuracy and efficiency. From access or excel to dedicated packages, such as SPSS, Microsoft Excel, Tableau, SQL, Python, Stata and R for statistical analysis of quantitative data, Nvivo for qualitative (textual and audio-visual) data analysis (QDA) or ArcGIS for analyzing geospatial data.

Interpretation and Discussion

Data analysis and interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the collected information and determining the conclusions, significance, and implications of the findings. The steps involved in data analysis are a function of the type of information collected, however, returning to the purpose of the assessment and the assessment questions will provide a structure for the organization of the data and a focus for the analysis.

The analysis of NUMERICAL (QUANTITATIVE) DATA is represented in mathematical terms. The most common statistical terms include:

· Mean – The mean score represents a numerical average for a set of responses.

· Standard deviation – The standard deviation represents the distribution of the responses around the mean. It indicates the degree of consistency among the responses. The standard deviation, in conjunction with the mean, provides a better understanding of the data. For example, if the mean is 3.3 with a standard deviation (StD) of 0.4, then two- thirds of the responses lie between 2.9 (3.3 – 0.4) and 3.7 (3.3 + 0.4).

· Frequency distribution – Frequency distribution indicates the frequency of each response.

For example, if respondents answer a question using an agree/disagree scale, the percentage of respondents who selected each response on the scale would be indicated. The frequency distribution provides additional information beyond the mean, since it allows for examining the level of consensus among the data.

Higher levels of statistical analysis (e.g., t-test, factor analysis, regression, ANOVA) can be conducted on the data, but these are not frequently used in most program/project assessments.

Page | 47

The analysis of NARRATIVE (QUALITATIVE) DATA is conducted by organizing the data into common themes or categories. It is often more difficult to interpret narrative data since it lacks the built-in structure found in numerical data. Initially, the narrative data appears to be a collection of random, unconnected statements. The assessment purpose and questions can help

direct the focus of the data organization. The following strategies may also be helpful when

analyzing narrative data. Focus groups and Interviews:

§ Read and organize the data from each question separately. This approach permits focusing on one question at a time (e.g., experiences with tutoring services, characteristics of tutor, student responsibility in the tutoring process).

§ Group the comments by themes, topics, or categories. This approach allows for focusing on one area at a time (e.g., characteristics of tutor – level of preparation, knowledge of content area, availability).

Documents

§ Code content and characteristics of documents into various categories (e.g., training manual – policies and procedures, communication, responsibilities).

Observations

§ Code patterns from the focus of the observation (e.g., behavioral patterns – amount of time engaged/not engaged in activity, type of engagement, communication, interpersonal skills).

The analysis of the data via statistical measures and/or narrative themes should provide answers to the assessment questions. Interpreting the analyzed data from the appropriate perspective allows for determination of the significance and implications of the assessment.

Also, Interpretation of data is a process that involves answering a series of questions about it. We suggest the following steps: 1) Review and interpret the data "in-house" to develop preliminary findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

2) Review the data and your interpretation of it with an advisory group or technical committee.

This group should involve local, regional, and state resource people who are familiar with monitoring and with your river. They can verify, add to, or correct your interpretation of the results.

3) Review the data and your interpretation of it with the people who will use your data -- for example, the public, river users, and government officials. Ultimately, your interpretation of the data relates back to the questions your monitoring program is trying to answer. For example, does the river met state water quality standards? Following are examples of questions you might answer at each step, in order to develop findings and conclusions that relate to your study questions.

There are four steps to data interpretation:

Page | 48

1) assemble the information you'll need,

2) develop findings,

3) develop conclusions, and

4) develop recommendations.

The interpretation of results is more focused on what your analyses mean and how reliable or valid they are. However, the discussion part uses those interpretations to answer your research questions and compare these findings with what other scholars have found (if applicable).

Results interpretation is statistical, specific and constrained the discussion section explains

the statistical findings in the context of the research hypothesis presented and any other related research that it either supports or refutes.

The point of a discussion, in my view, is to transcend 'just the facts,' and engage in productive speculation," he says.

That means going back to the literature and grappling with what your findings mean, including how they fit in with previous work. If your results differ from others' findings, you should try to explain why, says Nolen-Hoeksema. Then, launch into "bigger picture" issues. For example, a clinical study might discuss how psychologists might apply the findings in a clinical setting or a social psychology project might talk about political implications.

By exploring those kinds of implications, students address what Scholl considers the most important-and often overlooked-purpose of the discussion: to directly explain why others should care about your findings.

"You can't and shouldn't rely on others to intuitively appreciate the beauty and importance of your work," he says.

Sounds simple, right? In fact, choosing what to include can be overwhelming.

"It is easy to get caught up in the desire to be extremely comprehensive and to bring up every potential issue, flaw, future direction and tangentially related concept. "However, this will make your project seem like it has raised more questions than it answers."

Limit your discussion to a handful of the most important points

DO: Emphasize the positive. DON'T: Exaggerate.

One of the biggest errors, students make in their discussion is exaggeration, say experts. Speculation is fine as long as you acknowledge that you're speculating and you don't stray too far from your data, say experts. That includes avoiding language that implies causality when your study can only make relational conclusions.

"If your study was not a true experiment, replace verbs that imply causation with words and phrases such as 'correlated with,' 'was associated with' and 'related to,' (APA, 2006).

"The moral here is to try to find a balance where you set a tone that indeed celebrates interesting findings without too many leaps, while at the same time reporting limitations without being unnecessarily negative.

Page | 49

Indeed, every discussion should include a "humility" section that addresses the study's limitations, avoid beginning the discussion with a long list of study limitations.

The discussion section is the place to leave your mark. So instead of simply summarizing your data and suggesting a few obvious follow-up studies, think about presenting your data in a novel way, showing how the work might resolve an existing controversy in the literature or explaining how it connects to an entirely different literature.

Page | 50

UNIT 6

PROCESS FIVE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Summary of Findings, Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Due to clarity demand, summary of findings must contain each specific question under the statement of the problem and must be written first to be followed by the findings that would answer it. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data consisting of text and numbers.

CONCLUSIONS

The Conclusions section sums up the key points of your discussion, the essential features of your design, or the significant outcomes of your investigation. As its function is to round off the story of your project, it should:

· Be written to relate directly to the aims of the project as stated in the Introduction

· Indicate the extent to which the aims have been achieved

· Summaries the key findings, outcomes or information in your report

· Acknowledge limitations and make recommendations for future work (where applicable)

· Highlight the significance or usefulness of your work.

· The conclusions should relate to the aims of the work:

THE LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the interpretation of the findings from your research. They are the constraints on generalizability, applications to practice, and/or utility of findings that are the

result of the ways in which you initially chose to design the study or the method used to establish internal and external validity or the result of unanticipated challenges that emerged during the study.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations are based on the results of your research and indicate the specific measures or directions that can be taken. For example, a study might have implications for learner centred research and might recommend against the use of a particular teaching method.

Example of recommendation in research paper can be defined as a critical suggestion regarding the best course of action in a certain situation. The whole idea of a recommendation is to provide a beneficial guide that will not only resolve certain issues, but result in a beneficial outcome.

Area for Further Research

Page | 51

Your dissertation or research project needs to include suggestions for future research. Suggested area for further research plays an important role in discovering new treatments, and making sure that we use existing treatments in the best possible ways. Research can find

answers to things that are unknown, filling gaps in knowledge and changing the way that

professionals work.

You will need to propose 4-5 suggestions for future studies and these can include the following:

· Building upon findings of your research.

· Addressing limitations of your research.

· Constructing the same research in a new context, location and/or culture.

· Re-assessing and expanding theory, framework or model you have addressed in your research.

Page | 52

UNIT 7

CRITICAL ISSUES IN ACTION RESEARCH

Role of the Action Researcher

George and Mensah (2014) posit that the main role played by the action researcher focuses on nurturing local leaders to the point where the leaders can take responsibility for the process. This point is reached when the local leaders understand the methods and are able to carry on when the initiating researcher leaves.

In many action research situations, hired researchers are engaged to play a primary role of facilitating dialogue and fostering reflective analysis among the participants and providing them with periodic reports; and eventually the final report when the researcher’s involvement has ended (George & Mensah, 2014). These scholars also hold the view that the action researcher’s role is to implement the action research method in such a manner as to produce a mutually agreeable outcome for all participants, with the process being maintained by them afterwards. To accomplish this, the adoption of many different roles at various stages of the action research process is vital, including those of:

· Planner

· Catalyzer

· Teacher

· Listener

· Synthesizer

· Leader

· Facilitator

· Designer and Reporter Ethical Considerations

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the conduct of people and guide their norms or

standards of behavior as well as how they relate with each other (Blumberg et al, 2005, as cited

in Kour, 2015). The central focus of research ethics has to do with giving due consideration regarding how to deal and relate with the human subjects that participate in the research process (Akaranga & Makau, 2016). This suggests that the ethical rights of a participant must be respected throughout the study.

Although action research is conducted by practitioners in their own practice, it is still considered research and should be monitored and conducted by following specific ethical guidelines. The researcher should ensure the safety, confidentiality, and well-being of those being studied or those who may be affected by the study. Ethical consideration of research participants and should constitute key elements of any action research study (Mertler, 2012). In planning an action research inquiry, the researcher needs to consider a number of issues as they relate to the action research. The issues include the following:

1. Obtaining Permission to Conduct the Study:

Samaras (2011) shares the opinion that the researcher must get in touch with the appropriate “gatekeepers” (e.g., teachers or administrators) and obtain permission to conduct the study and

Page | 53

collect data. Furthermore, the researcher would have to get the approval of your administrators even if the inquiry is to be carried out his/her own classroom. As proof or evidence of observing this ethic, the action researcher must ensure that he/she documents the exchange of messages giving granting permission for the conduct of the study in the chosen setting (school, classroom

etc). In some cases, depending on the school policy and the nature of the study, the researcher

will need to obtain parents’ permission as well.

2. Confidentiality of Data Collected

Whenever a researcher collects data for the purpose of a study, there is need to ensure the confidentiality of the research findings. Regardless of the information collected — observations, interviews, test scores, school records, etc, the rights of participants should be guaranteed. To ensure confidentiality, the researcher must avoid identifying participants by name or providing other identifying information about or others, such as colleagues or parents, and be sensitive to people’s desire to remain anonymous. You may use pseudonyms (a false or fictitious name, especially one used by an author.) or general descriptions. Group data may be used, if possible, to protect individuals. For example, report test scores for the class as a whole instead of scores

for individual students. To protect the anonymity of the study’s participants, names and other contact information need to be removed from documents used in the study such as writing samples, surveys, and tests. Additionally, with so much data currently stored in electronic formats, it must be ensured that participants are protected in case the data are compromised in any way.

3. Informed Consent

Bouma and Ling (2004) state that in many studies, participants (or their parents or legal guardians if they are minors) have to consent to participate in the study. As a researcher you should therefore not assume that you can design any study or collect any data that you want just because you are investigating in your own setting. Additionally, make sure you have the proper permission to record or videotape the participants.

Unless the data you collect are part of your professional responsibilities, you have to notify the participants about your action research and provide them with an opportunity to ask questions about it. It is suggested that a letter of introduction be sent to the participants or to their parents or guardians if they are minors. In the letter identify yourself and your role in the school, describe the purpose of your study, and outline what the research participants’ involvement in the study will entail.

Samaras (2011) explains that as a researcher, you should ensure the participants’ confidentiality and privacy and create room for them to withdraw from the inquiry if they wish to, without any negative consequences. This information may encourage the cooperation of the participants (or their parents or guardians) and will allow them to make a thoughtful decision about whether to sign the informed consent form (see a sample form of consent below)

SAMPLE INFORMED CONSENT FORM

I give my consent to have my son/daughter participate in a research project regarding the use of portfolio assessment in the science class. I understand that if I give this consent, my

Page | 54

son/daughter will be interviewed and observed during two sessions of science lessons, and his/her portfolio on the topic will be read by the researcher.

I understand that participation in this study is voluntary; I can withdraw my son/daughter from the study at any time during the study without any negative consequences.

I further understand that my child’s anonymity will be protected, and the name of the school or the teachers will not be revealed when reporting the results of the study.

Please sign and return the form.

Your name (please print): …………………………………………………

Your child’s name: ……………………………………………………

Your signature: …………………………………………………….

Date: ……………………………………………

I understand the information above and AGREE to allow my son/daughter to participate in the research project.

I understand the information above and DO NOT AGREE to my son/daughter’s participation in the research project.

4. Accurate interpretation and Presentation of the data

The researcher should maintain the highest standards and be honest and accurate when gathering and interpreting data for the study. While it may be tempting at times, the researcher should resist this invitation and avoid overextending the findings and should not also report as conclusive findings that cannot be confirmed with a high degree of certainty (Samaras, (2011).

Because action research is carried out in real world circumstances, and involves close and open communication among the people involved, the researchers must pay close attention to ethical considerations in the execution of action research (George & Mensah, 2014). According to Winter (1989) the following ethical guidelines must be observed by researchers in the conduct of their work:

· Make sure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted, and that the principles guiding the work are accepted in advance by all

· All participants must be allowed to influence the work, and the decisions of those who do not wish to participate must be respected

· The development of the work must remain visible and open to suggestions from others

· Permission must be obtained before making observations or examining documents produced for other purposes

· Description of others’ work and points of view must be negotiated with those concerned before being published

· The researcher must accept responsibility for maintaining confidentiality

Page | 55

Strengths and Limitations of Action Research

Action research is intended to help teachers improve their teaching practices when they work with a specific group of students. It aims at helping teachers deal with both everyday problems and projects by introducing innovations. As our understanding of the school system develops, action research should assist us achieve new goals which must focus on curriculum development based on the school, teacher professional education strategy, and constituent development planning for the school system reforms. All of these contribute to professionalization of the teaching profession and introduction of the teacher as a researcher (McNiff & Whitehead, 2002).

In order to fulfill the vision of teachers’ lifelong education, learning and professional development, it is necessary to educate teachers who can think critically, who are able to reflect and evaluate, who can define and or meet the conditions for successful development of each individual student and who can encourage and improve their own educational practice (Whitehead, 2002)

STRENGTHS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Bunning (1995) has identified the following as some of the strengths of Action Research:

• It is related to practical problems,

• Its cooperative nature makes it suitable for work in smaller groups, in which each participant can take the initiative,

• It stimulates innovative solutions,

• It can be conducted with minimal costs,

• It instigates cooperation and team work

According to Pine and Little (1981) the strengths of Action Research rest on its ability to achieve the following:

1. Focus on school issue, problem, or area of collective interest

The problem or issue under investigation through action research is usually one which has something to do with a learning need or wider school environment. Resolving such an issue improves practice on the part of both teachers and students. Research done with the teacher’s students, in a setting with which the teacher is familiar, helps to bring about relevance and validity to a disciplined study.

2. Form of teacher professional development

Research and reflection allow teachers to grow and gain confidence in their work. Action research projects influence thinking skills, sense of efficacy, willingness to share and communicate, and attitudes toward the process of change. Through action research, teachers learn about themselves, their students, their colleagues, and can determine ways to continually improve.

3. Collegial interactions

Page | 56

Isolation is one of the downsides of teaching. Teachers are often the sole adult in a room of children, and have little or no time scheduled for professional conversations with others. Action research in pairs or by teams of teachers allows time to talk with others about teaching and teaching strategies. By working on these teams, teachers must describe their own teaching

styles and strategies and share their thoughts with others. As a team they examine various

instructional strategies, learning activities, and curricular materials used in the classroom. Through these discussions with colleagues, they develop stronger relationships. As the practice of action research becomes part of the school culture, there would be increased sharing and collaboration across departments, disciplines, grade levels, and schools.

1. Potential to impact school change

As teachers get into action research, they develop a tendency to focus more on questions that address school and district concerns rather than questions that affect the individual teacher. This process creates new patterns of collegiality, communication, and sharing. Contributions to the body of knowledge about teaching and learning may also result. Development of priorities for school-wide planning and assessment efforts arise from inquiry with potential to motivate school actors to work towards improvement or change for the better.

2. Reflection on own practice

Opportunities for teachers to evaluate themselves in schools are often few, and usually happen only in an informal manner. Action research can avail practitioners the opportunity to really take a look at their own teaching in a structured manner. While the focus of action research is usually the students, educators can also investigate what effect their teaching is having on their students, how they could work better with other teachers, or ways of changing the whole school for the better.

LIMITATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH

The limitations of classroom Action Research can be divided in two groups: physical limitations and methodological limitations (Iliev, 2010). In the physical limitations belong the problem with consistence in critical action and the problem with keeping attention during the whole action research. The pupils have physiological inability for critical thinking due to the age and can`t focus their attention for a long period of duration of the action research.

The group of methodological limitations of practicing action research refers to the structuring of the research instruments for data gathering, persistence of the ethical principles in realization of the action research, producing the system of knowledge based on the results of the research, complete dependence of the implementation of interventions on others (respondents). Consideration in the process of changing the behaviour in the classroom, the changes in learning and teaching and the development of productive reflexive practice.

1. Potential to impact school change

Page | 57

2. Reflection on own practice

LIMITATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH

The limitations of classroom Action Research can be divided in two groups: physical limitations and methodological limitations (Iliev, 2010). In the physical limitations belong the problem with consistence in critical action and the problem with keeping attention during the whole action research. The pupils have physiological inability for critical thinking due to the age and can`t focus their attention for a long period of duration of the action research.

· Limitations of classroom Action Research have also been identified by other scholars; and these may be categorized as Physical limitations or Methodological limitations (see the views of Iliev, 2010 above).

Coghlan and Brannik (2005), Dick (2006) are of the view that action research has limitations including the following:

· The use of coercion or voluntary selection of the participants affects the honesty in the answers given by the participants. This is due to the fear of repercussions that may arise after the research. Consequently, it reduces the ability of action research to meet the required needs as the picture presented may not be true of the situation that was investigated.

· A practitioner may not give an accurate report owing to matters that may not be good for the profession including a conclusion that may be critical of their methods of practice. Lack of objectivity in writing the report is a problem, as the practitioner may not be able to separate personal issues, and write the report in an objective manner as the issues or findings touch on his /her profession.

· The results in action research cannot be generalized. The practitioner can however generalize the results to only the portion of the population studied and the exact system.

· Action research is more difficult to conduct than conventional research as it requires the involvement/participation of the researcher and there is a constant requirement to refine the methodology as the research progresses.

Page | 58

Practical and Theoretical Matters of Action Research

Advocates of action research propose formalizing teacher inquiry to empower teachers to leverage their “insider” knowledge to change classroom practice. Currently there is disagreement between theorists who promote action research as practical or critical inquiry (Manfra, 2009). Practical Action Research

Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) believe that action research theorized as practical inquiry is a “way to generate or enhance practical knowledge. Proponents of practical action research argue that inquiry can illuminate important issues of teachers and their students and, through reflection on practice, generate new knowledge about teaching and learning (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2005).

Within practical inquiry, teachers study and redefine their “professional knowledge landscapes” (Clandinin & Connolly, 1995).

According to Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999), "practical inquiry is more likely to respond to the immediacy of the knowledge needs teachers confront in everyday practice and to be foundational for formal research by providing new questions and concerns" (p. 19). Practical action research can help pre-service and experienced teachers gain a sense of professionalism and improve their practice (Levin & Rock, 2003). These views suggest that practical action research is more relevant and authentic for teachers.

Critical Action Research

Action research envisioned as critical inquiry or “critical action research” departs from the practical notions of classroom-based research. Rather than describing schools and classrooms, the goals of critical action researchers involve changing educational structures and transforming society. According to Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1999), “The emphasis is on transforming educational theory and practice toward emancipatory ends and thus raising fundamental questions about curriculum, teachers' roles, and the ends as well as the means of schooling" (p. 18). Proponents of critical action research encourage teachers to investigate the social, cultural, and political contexts of schooling in the pursuit of more democratic schools and society (Carr & Kemmis, 1986).

A Summary: Practical Action Research Compared to Critical Action Research

Page | 59

Practical Action Research:	Critical Action Research:
Concerned with practical knowledge	Concerned with social and cultural factors that impact school
Interest in day-to-day issues of teacher Practice	Interest in democratic participation and emancipation
May result in improved practice and student performance but not social or cultural change	Seeks deep change and enlightenment within the classroom and wider school environment

Implicit goal towards improving classroom business

Implicit goal towards improving society

Referencing (APA)

It has been observed that student-researchers write research report without relating it to a body of knowledge consulted and without considering that a list of references is a vital element of a report (Osuala, 2001). Such a list includes all relevant works which have been cited by the author or the researcher, and which have been consulted in the introduction, review of literature, research methodology, results and discussion sections of their research / project report or thesis. A distinction should be made between a list of references and a bibliography. According to Osuala (2001) a list of references refers to the list of materials cited in the research text, while bibliography is a comprehensive coverage of materials in an area even though this may not have been cited in the text.

WHAT IS A REFERENCE CITATION?

A reference citation is the documentation needed to make a paper acceptable for academic purposes. It gives authoritative sources for the statements, helps the reader gain access to those sources, and acknowledges the fact that the information used in a paper did not originate from the writer (American Psychological Association, 2008).

THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) STYLE OF REFERENCING.

APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author's last name and the year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style recommended by the American Psychological Association and used in many of the social sciences.

ELEMENTS OF A REFERENCE

Volume one of the APA Guide (7^th Ed.) identifies the key elements of reference and a set of general guidelines researchers must follow in referencing their research reports. A good reference should provide readers with information on the following:

Who

• Who authored the work?

• Individual/Multiple people/Group

When

• When was the work published/created?

What

• What is the title of the work?

Where

• Where can it be found?

Page | 60

• Where do I go to retrieve it?

THE REFERENCE PAGE

· References start on a new page.

· References are ordered alphabetically by author’s surname

· Do not sort names WITHIN a reference

· Each reference has a hanging indent of .5 inch.

· In Microsoft Word see Paragraph - Indentation - Special – Hanging

· References ending with a DOI or URL do not have an ending period.

IN-TEXT CITATIONS

There are two types of in-text citations, parenthetical and narrative. Both supply the same basic information, but are formatted differently (APA, 2020).

PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATIONS

Format

If author's name occurs in the text, follow it with year of publication in parentheses.

Example: Piaget (1970) compared reaction times...

Author unknown

If the author is unknown, the work title moves into the author position.

Format of the work title - italicized

If the work title is italicized in the reference list, italicize it within the in-text citation. Capitalize the work title using title case

IN-TEXT EXAMPLE

Book with no author: (Strategic Management, 2011)

· Format of the work title - not italicized

· If the work title is not italicized in the reference list, use double quotation marks around the title.

· Capitalize the work title using title case.

IN-TEXT EXAMPLE

Magazine article with no author:

(“Foundations of Strategic Management”, 2007)

SPECIFIC PARTS OF A WORK

Page | 61

To provide greater specificity of what is being referenced, additional information can be added to the end of the in-text citation. Examples include:

• Page numbers

• (Smith, 2015, pp.10-15)

NOTE: Page numbers should always be included within in-text citations when directly quoting from a work.

LOCATION OF IN-TEXT CITATION

• A parenthetical citation may appear either:

1. Within a sentence

For example: A new framework (Nowak, 2015) has been devised to enhance the organization’s understanding of its supply chain inefficiencies.

2. At the end of a sentence

For example: “There are five reasons why servant leadership can be a foundation for personal and organizational excellence- contextual, anecdotal, empirical, philosophical, and cross- cultural” (Sendjaya, 2015, p. 3).

NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATIONS

With narrative in-text citations, the information about the work is incorporated within a sentence.

Format

• Author name (publication year) For example: Jones (2019)

In-text Example:

As Sendjaya (2015) points out, no individual is likely to possess all of the skills necessary for today’s competitive market.

ABBREVIATIONS

If a group author name is well known, it can be abbreviated to enhance readability.

Abbreviation Guidelines

Provide the full name the first time the name is mentioned in the text, followed by the abbreviation. For subsequent citations, the abbreviated format can be used.

NOTE: Do NOT abbreviate the group name in the reference list.

In-text Example:

a) Parenthetical citation - first appearance:

(American Medical Association [AMA], 2018)

Page | 62

b) Narrative citation - first appearance:

The American Medical Association (AMA, 2018) first addressed the topic...

PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Works that cannot be recovered by readers are designated as personal communications. Format

• Initials and surname of the person providing the communication (date of the communication)

In-text Example:

1. Parenthetical citation

(R. Mitchell, personal communication, January 21, 2018)

2. Narrative citation

J. L. Bennett (personal communication, May 2, 2016)

BOOK CITATION - GENERAL FORMAT

Author(s). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher Name. https://doi.org/xxxx NOTE: When using a direct quote, add the source’s page number to the in-text citation. Book - Single Author

Sendjaya, S. (2015). Personal and organizational excellence through servant leadership: Learning to serve, serving to lead, leading to transform. Springer.

In-text example:

1. Parenthetical citation: (Sendjaya, 2015)

2. Narrative citation: Sendjaya (2015)

SECONDARY SOURCES: provide a reference for the secondary source.

Page | 63

· In the text of your paper, if you are unable to access and read the primary source, identify the primary source, also citing the secondary source. In the references, only list the secondary source.

· If the text of your paper, identify the primary source and then write, “as cited in” the secondary source. Include the year of the primary source if known.

Secondary Source:

Calkins, L. (2015). A guide to the reading workshop: Primary grades. Heinemann.

In-text example:

Much of children’s reading happens without them consciously recognizing that they are processing the print on the page and understanding the meaning of the content (Clay, 2001, as cited in Calkins, 2015, p. 116).

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Journal article – 21 or more authors

When there are 21 or more authors, include the first 19 names, insert an ellipsis (but no ampersand i.e. &) and then add the final author’s name.

Magazine article from a database

Zikmund, B. B., & Lummis, A. T. (1998, May 6). Women, men and styles of clergy leadership.

Christian Century, 115(14), 478

In-text example

1. Narrative citation: Zikmund and Lummis (2019)

2. Parenthetical citation: (Zikmund & Lummis, 2019)

Magazine article from the web

Schindler, J. (2019, January 7). Leading with ethics. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/ forbescoachescouncil/2019/01/07/leading-with-ethics/#15d2ad4568ad

Newspaper article from a database

Stockman, F. (2018, December 24). Anti-Semitism accusations roil women’s march. New York Times, 168(58186), A1-A13.

Newspaper article from the web

Dvorak, P. (2020, January 20). Marching around with guns on your chest? That’s all about fear. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/marching-around-with-guns- on-your-chest-thats-all-aboutfear/2020/01/20/077f3af0-3bc2-11ea bacaeb7ace0a3455_story.html

Inquiry and Action Research for Junior High Schools

COURSE OUTLINE

Kindly Scroll to read, broaden, and download

Action Research Handout

Complete Handout(UG Colleges)

PAST AND TRIAL QUESTIONS

TABLE OF CONTENT

PROCESS FIVE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH 51

CRITICAL ISSUES IN ACTION RESEARCH 53

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Page | 3

Page | 4

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research

Page | 5

Page | 7

3. Classification based on Inquiry Mode:

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACTION RESEARCH AND APPLIED RESEARCH

Page | 8

Page | 9

Page | 10

Page | 11

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS AND EXAMPLE

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Page | 12

ORIGIN OF ACTION RESEARCH

Page | 13

Page | 14

Page | 15

1. Important for Teacher Professional Development:

2. Evaluation of Own Practice:

3. Focus on School Issues, Problems, or Area of Collective Interest:

Page | 16

4. Give Opportunities for Collegial interactions:

5. Improved Collegiality and Communications:

1) Reflexive critique

2) Dialectical critique

Page | 17

3) Collaborative Resource

4) Risk

5) Plural Structure

6) Theory, Practice, Transformation

Page | 18

UNIT 2

PROCESS ONE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Worldview Background of the Study Area

National View of the Background Study Area

Page | 19

IMPORTANCE OF A PROBLEM STATEMENT

KEY ELEMENTS OF A PROBLEM STATEMENT IN RESEARCH

Page | 20

Ideal situation

Reality

Consequences

Proposal

HOW TO WRITE A PROBLEM STATEMENT

PROBLEM STATEMENT EXAMPLE

Reality:

Consequences:

Proposal:

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Good purpose statements:

Page | 22

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES LIES IN THE FACT THAT THEY DETERMINE

Page | 23

RESEARCH QUESTION

IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION

FINGER CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH QUESTION

F – Feasible

I – Interesting

N – Novel

E – Ethical

R – Relevant

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY SIGNIFICANCE

IMPORTANCE OF DELIMITING THE PROBLEM

Page | 26

UNIT 3