COURSE MANUAL
COURSE CONTENT
COURSE NOTE
COMPLEMENTARY NOTE
Course Description
This will seek to expose student teachers to religious and moral development theories and their implications for teaching RME. Such religious and moral development theories include the works of Ronald Goldman, Michael Grimmitt, Sigmund Freud, BF Skinner, jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Richard Acland, Harold Loukes. The course delivery method to be used include: individual study, group individual presentations and other e-learning opportunities. Student teachers are expected to learn, understand and apply the implications of such theories in their teaching. The purpose is to offer them the opportunity to have an in-depth knowledge of these theories and relate them to their professional work. Student teachers will be assessed based on projects, quizzes, presentations and end of semester examinations (NTS 2b, c, & d; NTECF pillar1, NTS1a, g; NTECF P. 41, NTS 3b, f, g; NTECF pillar 2 & 4).
Summary of Theories to be studied and their categorizations
a. (Ronald Goldman and Michael Grimmitt): Theories of Religious Development
b. (Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, B F Skinner & Albert Bandura): Theories of Moral Development
c. (Sir Richard Acland, and Harold Loukes): Empirical Research on Religious Development
INTRODUCTION
Contributions of Developmental Psychologists to Religious and Moral Education
The Concept ‘Development’
Research work by developmental psychologists has revealed that, work for children should be based on their developmental stages. To them, inappropriate choice of method and materials for teaching children will cause havoc in children’s learning discourages learning while materials below children create boredom. What then is development?
Development is explained as irreversible progressive change towards some more complex level. Developing children’s religious and moral understanding is a gradual process but not a rush.
As to this therefore, it is important for every RME teacher to ensure that, in planning his/her lessons, he/she would take into consideration the “needs” and “interest” and “experiences” of the children into consideration so that he/she can devise “experiential experiences” which are relevant to the development of the children. As a teacher, he/she should be aware of the various ways children think at different stages of their development. This will enable the teacher to select “content” and “methods” suitable for the child’s morals and religious development
The activities or work of developmental psychologists have been put into two main groups. The religious developmentalists and the moral developmentalist. Religious developmentalist is much concerned with how children acquire religious understanding while moral developmentalist is concerned with how people acquire their moral concepts and understanding.
The moral developmentalists for our study are:
a. Jean Piaget “Cognitive Theory of Moral Development”
b. Lawrence Kohlberg “Cognitive Theory of Moral Development”
c. Sigmund Freud “The Psychoanalytic Theory of Moral Development”
d. B.F Skinner “Behavioural / Learning Theory of Moral Development”
UNIT1
Theories of Moral Development
Jean Piaget: Cognitive Theory of Moral Development
Jean Piaget-Cognitive Theory of Moral Development
Assumptions of Piaget stages of Moral Development
Piaget made the following assumptions: That moral values are attitudes towards duties and rights of individuals Those cognitive processes are necessary for moral development.
That moral development is preceded by pre-moral stage during which the child does not have any idea about rules. That child is born with some innate sense of attitude and concepts.
Piaget therefore argued further by saying that, morality develops gradually during childhood and adolescence. Piaget in his research identified two types of moral development being.
a. Heteronomous and
b. Autonomous morality.
These two types of morality differentiated by Piaget also falls under the stages of morality and these shall be discussed fully later.
Please read on;
Piaget’s Methodology (Research)
Piaget adopted the Clinical Interview approach in investigating how children reason about moral issues. Specifically, Piaget used two interacting strategies to test children’s reasoning about morality.
1. He first played game of marble with children
2. He told stories.
Using Marble Game to Determine Children’s Perception (Thinking) of Morality
Piaget strongly believes that the essence of morality lies in rules so he used the game of MARBLES, which has a lot of rules to determine the children’s moral perception. In the game of marbles, children created and enforced their own rules without the influence of adults. He felt that by using this method, he could discover how children’s moral thinking in general develops.
In the beginning, Piaget pretends he did not know the rules so he asked the children to explain the rules of the game to him in the course of the game. The children were to tell Piaget the following
1. The source of the rules
2. who made the rules
3. where the rules came from and
4. If the rules could be changed.
Here, Piaget wanted to develop insight into their understanding of rules, wrong acts, justice, and punishment.
Findings
Piaget found out that, children between 5 – 10 years tend to believe that, the rules about the game had always existed in their present form. Children of this stage are of the view that, older children, adults or even God formulated rules for playing games. To such children, the rules were sacred and could not be changed in any way. They were considered as external laws. However, the children broke the rules to suit themselves in the course of playing.
Secondly, Piaget dealt with children from age of 10 and above to go through a similar to have been invented by children themselves and that, the rules could be changed but the essence of the rules was to prevent quarreling and fairness.
More so, Piaget discovered that the older children adhered strictly to the rules and discussed openly the implications of the change of the rules. Piaget deduced that peers or children understanding of rules were either for.
a. Mutual Respect Or
B. Unilateral Respect
A. Mutual Respect. This is where moral orientation towards co-operation with peers is. Or simply to put where peers’ rules to suit themselves during games. Here, the rules are formulated and followed by peers themselves.
B. Unilateral Respect. This is respect shown by the younger children towards older children and authority of adults. Here, supremacy and reverence are given to adults as formulators of rules.
Use of Pairs of Stories to Determine Moral Perception of Children
Piaget in his second research told children two pairs of stories in which accidents happened. He then asked children questions based on the incidence. Example of such stories is as follows:
1. First pair of stories
A little boy called JOHN is in his room. He is called to dinner. He goes into the dining room. But behind the door is a chair, and on the chair is a tray with fifteen (15) cups. John couldn’t have known that all this was behind the door. He goes in; the door knocks against the tray. The fifteen (15) cups go down and they all get broken.
Once there was a little boy called HENRY. One day when his mother was out he tried to get some jam out of the cupboard. He climbed unto a chair and stretched out his arm. But the arm was too high up and he could not reach it. While he was trying to get it, he knocked over a cup. The cup felt down and broke.
After these stories, Piaget asked the children: Is John as bad or guilty as Henry? And if not which of them is naughtier? Why?
Let us consider the second part of the story before providing the necessary answers to the above questions.
2. Second pair of stories
“A little girl called Maria wanted to give her mother a nice surprise and so she cut out a piece of sewing for her. But she couldn’t use the scissors properly so she cut a big hole in her dress”.
“A little girl called Margaret went and took her mother’s scissors one day when her mother was out. She played with them for a bit and then, as she didn’t know how to use them properly, she made a hole in her dress.
Moral Judgement of Children on The Stories Response of Children Aged 5-9 or 10 In the Case of John (1a And Maria 2a)
He asked which of the children above was naughtier and should be punished more. Here, Piaget was more interested in the reasons the children gave than the answer themselves.
Children between the age of 5 – 9 and 10, although, were able to distinguish between an intention and an unintentional act based on their judgment on the damage caused.
To them, John and Maria was judge to be bad and naughtier because, John broke many cups and Maria made bigger hole in her dress.
Again, these younger people thought that, naughty people should pay for their crime. Here, the children thought, punishment were decree issued by authority and accepted as good or just because of its source. i.e., “Moral Realism”.
He further asserts that, when children are around eight years old, they lose this moral realism and begins to take its” intention” of the offender into accounts. Here, a person who intentionally knocks over a plate is regarded as acting in way that is worse than one who accidentally breaks many.
Again, Piaget asserts that, to the younger children, a misfortunate that happens to people who had behave naughtily and got away with it seen as punishment for the misdeed. This kind of punishment can be described by Immanent Justice. For instance a boy hits the friend and wants to run way, but in the course falls down. Such a boy is described as to have received immanent Justice for the offence committed.
Responses of Children Aged Above 10 Years in the Case of Henry (1b And Margaret 2b)
In the other way round, the older children unlike the younger children judged HENRY and MARGARET to be naughtier. The older saw that, Henry and Margaret were doing something they shouldn’t have done. Although they accepted that the damage they caused was accidental, they saw the motive or intention behind the act as being more important in determining the level of naughtiness. (This could be described as internal responsibility.)
Meanwhile, punishment according to older children makes the offender see or feel the nature of offence and also serving as deterrent to the offender and others.
Again, the older children unlike the younger ones saw collective punishment as wrong. To the older children, they think, punishment should be made to fit the offence committed. For instance, if someone steals his/her friends’ book, he/she should be made to hand over his/her own book to the victim. But there, the offender do not have book, then he/she should be punished in another way which is deemed appropriate. This is the “principles of reciprocity”
More so, the older children did not see justice as tied to an authority that is in league with some external force (more relativism) and so did not accept the belief in “immanent Justice”. Based on the findings of Piaget’s work, he came out with the following stages of moral development.
Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development
Although Piaget emphasized on two main stages being Heteronomous and autonomous moral stages, his research work revealed three main stages of moral development and these are as follow:
1. Amoral Stage
2. Heteronomous Stage
3. Autonomous Moral Stage.
We are now going to look at these stages in details.
Amoral Stages (i.e., neither Moral nor Immoral) (0 – 4 yrs.)
This is the stage from birth up to around four years of age. Children do not understand what “Rules’ really arc, and are therefore unable to make judgment about breaking them. They are therefore not yet cognitively able to reason about morality. At this stage, they are amoral. That is they are neither moral nor immoral.
Heteronomous Morality Stage (5-10 yrs.)
1. This is stages of 5 – 10 years.
2. Children at this stage regard rules as fix and should be followed rigidly
3. At this stage, children understand rules but still believe rules come from “outside” that is from authority figures like teachers, parents, older siblings and even God.
4. To these children, changing the rules should be likely to upset these authority figures likely upset to these authority figures.
5. Children interpret rules literally: e.g. if you are not told to kick your sister, it does not mean that you should not slap her.
6. At this stage, children accept that breaking rules deserve punishment and the severe the punishment, the better. This belief is based on the idea that bad things happen to you because you deserve them for being bad. This is a belief in Immanent Justice. Let me now take my time to explain to you once again what is meant by “immanent Justice”. This is explained as justice inescapable. If you do bad things, one way or the other you would be punished.
According to Piaget therefore, children at this stage are MORAL REALISTS. That is being unable to consider the “intention” behind an action in deciding how good or bad that action was. Instead, they focus on things like the amount of damage caused.
The stages of Autonomous Morality (10yrs up).
Children recognize that the rules are not so fixed and absolute, but are to some extent arbitrary ways of regulating human interactions
At this stage, children recognize that rules are not simply imposed from outside, but have a purpose. Thus, decision about whether to break or change a rule is now taken internally.
Children are aware that, punishment should be appropriate to the crime and not a form of revenge.
At this stage, children have left behind the crude Moral Realism to Moral Relativism. Children at this stage are aware that, what makes an action moral or immoral is the Intention behind it.
Again, older children are less egocentric than younger ones. This is true because, if you are egocentric, you cannot appropriate other people’s point of view.
Educational Implications of Moral Development to the Classroom Teacher
This theory tells RME teachers to observe the following during the teaching learning process:
• Teach according to the age of the child
• Use appropriate TLMs when teaching
• Take the content of the course into account when teaching.
• Use appropriate methods when teaching.
• Link lesson to pupils RPK when teaching
• To motivate pupils when teaching
• To chunk when teaching
Criticism Against Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
Despite the good side of Piaget’s theory, some criticisms are also leveled against it. Some of these criticisms include the following.
a. The view that all young children are moral realist has been challenged. Piaget based this view mainly on children’s reaction to his stories, yet the point about the wrong doer’s intention in these stories is always clear.
b. Piaget is criticized for depending on his own interpretation of the children’s responses which is therefore very subjective. He should have made the children to justify the moral interpretation of their own responses
c. It has been established (by Bandura) that, developmental stages could be readily altered by the provision of adult models who constantly adopted a moral orientation counter to that displayed by the child even if this resulted in the apparent regression of the child to an earlier stage.
d. It has also been found that older adolescent boys still formed their judgment based on material consequence and paid no more attention to motives than younger children.
EXERCISES
Section A
1. Explain the term “cognitive development
2. lists any two psychologists who are connected with the theory of cognitive moral development
3. Identify any two strategies that Paige’s used to test children’s reasoning about morality
4. Explain the following terms:
a. moral realism
b. moral relativism
5. Identify the three stages of Piaget’s moral development
6. In a sentence, explain Heteronomous morality
7. Give one feature of amoral morality stage.
8. In sentences, explain the meaning of autonomous morality.
9. What is meant by immanent Justices?
10. State any one implication of Piaget’s theory of moral development to a classroom teacher.
11. Mention any two criticisms leveled against Piglets theory of moral development
Section B
1. a. Explain two strengths and two weakness of Piaget’s cognitive theory.
b. What three lessons can moral educators learn from the theory?
2. a. Discus the three stages of Piaget’s moral development
c. To what extent do the stages affect the teaching of Religious and Moral Education?
UNIT 2
Lawrence Kohlberg: Cognitive Theory of moral Development
COGNITIVE THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
Lawrence Kohlberg one of the cognitive psychologists is highly associated with cognitive moral development. Kohlberg expanded Piaget’s ideas. He also concentrated largely on individual’s moral judgment. He further adopted a cognitive theory of moral development and set out to show that principles of moral judgment develop as children grow older, but that development is highly dependent on environmental and social factors. Like Piaget, Kohlberg was also concerned with how children deal with moral issues (law) as they grow.
He also asserted that external influences can foster children’s moral thinking and help them to move onto a further more complex stage which leads him a skeletal work for more moral experience.
Research Methods: ‘Moral Dilemmas’
Kohlberg studied 4 – 13 years old boys testing them by using stories involving moral dilemmas. The most famous of such stories is the story of Heinz and The Drug.
HEINZ’S DILEMMAS
The story is as follows: Heinz’s wife was dying of cancer. A local pharmacist had invented a drug that might save her, but Heinz could not afford the drug. The pharmacist was charging ten times more than it had cost him to make the drug. Heinz explains to him that, his wife was dying and asked if he would sell the drug cheaper or let him pay later. The pharmacist refused to help. Heinz became desperate and one night broke into the store the drug to save his wife.
After telling the story, Kohlberg asked the following questions.
1. Was Heinz right to steal the drug? (Why or why not)
2. What if the person dying was a stranger?
3. Suppose it is a “pet” he loves, should Heinz steal to save the pet animal? (Why or why not)
4. It is important for people to do everything they can, to save people life. (Why or why not)
5. Should people try to do everything they can to obey the law? Why or why not
6. How does this apply to what Heinz should do? Kohlberg was interested in the “reasons” the boys gave to justify their answer. Kohlberg want on to apply this to people from many different cultures and using their answer to this and other dilemmas, he concluded that, the way people think about moral issues reflect their culture and their stage of development.
Kohlberg proposed three level of development with two stages in each level these moral levels are as follows:
1. pre-conventional moral levels (4 – 10 years)
2. Conventional Moral level (10 – 13 years)
3. Post conventional level (11 years and above)
Under each level are two stages as shown below:
1. PRE – CONVENTIONAL MORAL LEVEL: (4- 10 YEARS)
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
Stage 2: Individualism, and exchange orientation
2. CONVENTIONAL MORAL LEVEL (10 – 13 YEARS)
Stages 3: mutual interpersonal expectation or “good boy nice girl orientation”
Stage 4: maintaining the social order orientation.
3. POST CONVENTIONAL MORAL LEVEL (13YEARS AND ABOVE)
Stage 5: social contract
Stage 6: universal ethical principle or orientation
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (2 – 7 YEARS)
STAGE 1: Child acts to avoid unpleasant consequences. (Punishment)
ii. People based their morality on external authority. Children do as they are told because they get punishment. Children at this stage obey because adult tell them to obey. To the child therefore, what is good or bad is determined by what is and is not punishable. If for example, insulting a sibling is wrong, it is because authority figures says so and will punish such behaviour. For example,
Heinz should steal the drug. If he does not do so and the wife dies, he will get into trouble.
Heinz should not steal the drug. For he will be caught in the act and be sent into prison.
A critical look at the two responses above responses above indicates that, children moral behaviour is essentially based in the avoidance of punishment.
STAGE 2: (Individualism, purpose and exchange)
Child acts to gain reward. E.g., you should behave fairy and honour deals. Here, children realize that, certain action brings rewards. Let us consider the dilemma of Heinz.
Heinz should steal the drug. His wife needs it to live and he needs her companionship.
Heinz should not steal the drug. He might be arrested and imprisoned, and will not be able to came back before the wife dies.
From our observations of the two stages, it is realized that, reasoning occurs before children understand rules. Thus, at the Pre-conventional level, a child adheres to rules in society at large for the fear of the consequence of the offence (punishment). A large number of children within seven years (7) are still in their Pre-conventional level period. Children always would not do wrong for the fear of punishment.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORALITY (7 -9 YEARS) (Based on judgment about expectation of others)
At this level, a child begins to internalize adult standards. Children behaviour at this stage is described as “Other-directed” children want to be praised by their friends or others. These levels too deal with stage 3 and 4. Let us look at them.
STAGE 3:(mutual interpersonal expectation, relationship and interpersonal Conformity)
a. Child wishes to please others and thought of as “nice”, “good” etc. children seek their parent’s approval by being nice.
b. Again at this stage, what majority considers to be good is the definition of good. E.g. when child is asked to stay indoors, he/she does so not because she/he likes that but he/she because want to please the parent. He/she want the parent to call him/her “nice” and “good” boy/girl. Let us look at children’s responses to Heinz dilemma.
Heinz should steal the drug. For society expect a loving husband to help his wife.
Heinz should not steal the drug. He will be dishonoured in society and his family will be ashamed of him.
The above two responses are based on the observation that, at this stage, children understand and follow rules to satisfy the societal standard or expectation.
STAGE 4: (social system morality)
1. Children begin to respect the rules. The child sees moral behaviours in term of good.
2. Concern for the common good goes beyond stage 3. to this child, society protects the right of individuals so society must be protected by individual
3. Children begin to understand the rules and regulation on their own. Let us look their responses to Heinz dilemma.
Heinz should steal the drug. For them, greedy peoples like the chemist should not be allow in society.
Heinz should not steal the drug. If people are allowed to take the law into their own hands, regardless of how justified an act might be, the social order will soon break down.
At this level (the conventional) a child’s pre-occupation is about winning the approval of others and meeting others, expectation.
POST – CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORALITY (11 – 15 YEARS)
The post conventional morality as given by Kohlberg is the level where the society’s values (such as the right of the individual). The need for democratically determined rules or mutual action are well consider and affirmed, it is also guided by universal ethical principles, in which the individuals act according to his conscience, even if it is conflict with that of society’s expectation. This level too entails two main stages. That is stage 5 and 6
STAGE 5: (social contract or utility and individual rights)
Children realize that, laws are established by mutual agreement. As a result, believes the same democratic process and change the laws. At this stage, life is consider to be more “Sacred” than any legal Principle, and so the law should not be obeyed at all cost if it seem to be inimical to the right and freedom of individuals. Let us see Heinz dilemma in the case of above explanation.
Heinz should steal the drug. The law is not set up to deal with circumstances in which obeying it would cost a human life.
Heinz should not steal the drug. Although he could be blamed if he did steal it, even such extreme circumstances do not justify a person taking the laws into his own hands.
STAGE 6:(Universal ethical principles)
This the last stage among all the stages discussed by Kohlberg. At this stage, a person acts according to his own conscience or principle. At this stage, the child is able to consider both plights, i.e. His own plight and that of others together.
Here, the child has developed moral judgments that are based on universal human right. The child follows a personalized conscience when face with a dilemma between law and conscience.
Let us consider the final work of Heinz here.
Heinz should steal the drug. When it comes to saving the life and breaking the law, one must save than to be thinking of the law..
Heinz should not steal the drug. Heinz should have thought of the people who need the drug in the same way as the wife. By stealing the drug, Heinz reacted in accordance with his own will than going by the standard rules. (law)
A critical analysis of Heinz work here depicts that; children at this stage move beyond established rules and depend on their own conscience to act.
To sum up, I will give you a very brief description of Heinz works in their three levels including the various stages.
Kohlberg’s Levels Moral Development (A Summary)
§ PRE –CONVENTIONAL LEVEL. (2 – 7 YEARS)
Punishment – Obedience orientation
Personal reward orientation
§ CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (7 – 11 YEARS)
Good boy – nice girl orientation
Law and order orientation
§ POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL. (11 – 15 YEARS)
Social contract orientation
Universal ethical principle orientation.
Educational Implication of Kohlberg’s Theory
• Teach according to the age of the child
• Use appropriate TLMs when teaching
• Take the content of the course into account when teaching.
• Use appropriate methods when teaching.
• Link lesson to pupils RPK when teaching
• To motivate pupils when teaching
• To chunk when teaching
Criticism against Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Despite the good work done by Kohlberg, the fooling criticism have been leveled against him.
1. Kohlberg is criticized of been sex-biased in his theory. Carol Gilligan (1982) observed that, Kohlberg’s used only males without females.
2. There is no empirical evidence to support Kohlberg’s theory.
3. Again the moral dilemmas in Kohlberg’s stories are rather artificial, for instance, how many boys have had first – hand experience of caring for a dying wife?
4. Kohlberg’s moral dilemma focused on wrongdoing (stealing). He should have assessed other children in good – doing.
5. Moral reasoning in actual sense does not necessary conform to development but involves many complex and psychological factors
6. Stage 6 reasoning is so rarely achieved that, many psychologists believe that it should be dropped the classification system altogether. Indeed many of us do not even achieve stage 5 how much more stage 6
Lessons Moral Educators Can Learn from Kohlberg’s Theory
The use of Discovery/Discussion method: he encourages teachers to engage children in a lot of discussions in the teaching process.
Lesson presentation in the stages. That lesson should be presented in stages with easy ones first.
He also suggested, higher task above children should not be given to children to solve.
Children should be mad to interact more with the environment
Teachers/educators should use motivational strategies in teaching.
EXERCISES
1. What instrument did Kohlberg use to assess the moral reasoning of the children?
2. How many stages of moral development did Lawrence Kohlberg Identify?
3. What names are giving by Kohlberg to the three levels of development?
4. Which level of morality are children concerned with whatever other people think about them?
5. Name the level of moral where individuals act according to their conscience?
6. Is it true that older people are not able to reason better than younger person? State the reasons for your answer
7. How many levels of moral development did Kohlberg infer?
8. Identify any of the weaknesses of Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of moral development.
9. Start any one of the strengths of Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of moral development.
SECTION B
1. a. Explain three strengths and two weakness of Kohlberg’s cognitive theory.
b. What three lessons can moral educators learn from the theory?
2. a. Discuss the three levels of Kohlberg’s moral development.
c. To what extent are the level relevance to planners and classroom teachers?
Similarities in Piaget and Kohlberg’s Theory
• The two theories are divided into stages
• The two theories are based on moral development
• The two theories deal with children and adolescence
• The two theories deals with the cognitive development of the child
• The two theories make use of stories
• They both agree that the last stage of moral development is based on self-chosen principles
• Both theories have strength and weaknesses
• Both theories were criticized
Differences in the Two Theories
Piaget’s theory Kohlberg’s theory
Theory is divided into only stages Theory is divided into stages and levels
Piaget’s theory deals with only children Kohlberg’s theory deals with both children and adult
Piaget used both stories and a game of marble Kohlberg used only stories
Piaget had only three stages of morality Kohlberg had six stages of moral development
Piaget attached ages to the stages Kohlberg did not attach ages to the stages
Piaget used both male and female respondents Kohlberg used only male respondents
Piaget was the pioneer
Kohlberg copied and improved on piglet’s work
Piaget’s first stage talks about rules not being understood. Kohlberg’s first stage talks about acting to avoid punishment.
UNIT 3
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic theory of Moral Development
THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (SIGMUD FREUD)
Sigmund Freud was a German born of a Jewish family in May 6, 1856. Freud asserts that, all persons are made up of three elements. These elements are the following
Id Ego Super- Ego The Id
The Id is the first element of the personality through which the ego and the super ego developed. It is described as the biological part of the personality. Based on that, we say it is the Pleasure Principle element in humans. It is the biological part of the personality because; it contains everything that is inherited. It is present at birth and entails all human instincts. Human instincts are two and these are:
a. life instinct
b. death instinct
A. The life instinct (Eros)
This entails all the drives for human survival. For instance, finding food, warmth, sexual satisfaction. Libido is the energy associated with this instinct.
B. The Death instinct (Thanatos)
The death instinct is also known as Thanatos. As the name even implies, the instinct associated with it is destructive. The energy connected with this instinct is known as Aggression. This instinct also demands immediate satisfaction.
All in all, the Id stage is also described as the “pleasure principle”. This is because it always aims at inducing excitation to its minimum. There is always tension in the Id stage as it seeks to get satisfaction through all means. This made psychologists to name it “pleasure principle”. For instance, a hungry boy/girl pictures in the mind food. This food that the hungry person has in mind is a wish which he/she want to fulfill hence term as wish – fulfillment. For a better and easy understanding of this stage let us summarized the characteristics that the ID exhibits.
. The moral development of Sigmund Freud
According to the psychoanalytic theory, the human personality is divided into three systems namely: ID, EGO & SUPER-EGO
Characteristics of the Id
Ø It is the biological component of the human personality
Ø It operates on the pleasure principle
Ø It seeks sexual gratification
Ø It avoids pains
Ø It seeks to satisfy the bodily needs without regard for reason or logic.
Ø It is present at birth
Ø It seeks immediate bodily satisfaction
Ø It needs to be controlled
Ø It has two instincts being life and death or eros and Thanatos
Characteristics of the Ego
§ It is the executive part of the personality
§ It operates on the reality principle
§ It mediates between the world Id and the world of reality
§ It presents the moral values of society
§ It is rational
§ It starts at the age of 4.
§ It postpones gratification to the right time before doing it.
§ It finds a socially approved way of satisfying the body.
Characteristics of the Super-Ego
• It is the judicial part of the personality
• It operates on the reality principle
• It presents the moral values of society
• It strives for perfection
• It is made up of the ego ideal and conscience
• It is the social component of the personality
• It begins at the age of 10+
Benefits of the Theory to Teachers (Educational Implications)
• It helps teachers to reward effectively.
• It helps teachers to punish effectively
• It helps teachers to deal with children taking in accounts the principles of individual differences
• It helps teachers to use appropriate methods in teaching
• It helps the teacher to act as a role model
• It helps teachers to use the right TLRs.
• Systematic presentation of lessons
• Teaching by taking into accounts the RPK of learners
• It helps teachings to motivate children accordingly
• It tells teachers to teach from known to unknown.
The Ego
This according to Freud is the second stage of the personality. It is described as the executive part of personality. Also, it is the part that deals with the Reality Principle. That is the ego part enables us to distinguish between “wish” and “reality”. Decision – making, reasoning, planning and logic part of humans are some of the features of ego stage.
Whiles the Id demands immediate satisfaction of the personality without thinking of the consequences, the ego will postpone this satisfaction till the appropriate time arises.
We can thus say that, while the Id seeks immediate gratification, the Ego defers it.
The Ego waits for the appropriate time to seek for gratification. One thing that needs to be taken note of is that, the Ego can never dismiss the Id totally or in any way. It regulates the Id.
The Super Ego
The last stage of Freud’s stage is the Superego. These stages start at the age of (4). This stage represents the internalization of parent and social moral values of people. This stage does not develop independently of the “Id’ and the “ego”
The superego always observes the ego and gives it instruction judges and threatens it with punishment as parent do. The superego is described as the moral aim of the personality. Unlike the “id” and the “ego”, the superego’s main function is to decide whether something is good or bad so as to act according to the moral standards set by society.
The superego develops in response to reward and punishment given out by parent. The superego consists of two main parts i.e.
a. the conscience
b. the ego ideal
i. the conscience
This entails all things we should not do and if we do wrong, our conscience betrays us. Our conscience threatens the ego with punishment for bad behaviour.
2. the ego ideal
This is in one way or the other opposite to the (1) above
1. The ego ideal contains all things we should do. We feel rewarded internally whenever we do something good. The super – ego therefore motivates the ego with positive reward for good conduct
2. The conscience of the child’s is formed by means of identification with his or her relatives or parents and the assimilation of the parent’s moral standard.
3. the superego always fights for perfect things
4. It convinces the ego to replace moralistic goals for realistic ones
Id; Characteristics Ego; Characteristics Super-Ego Characteristics
It is the biological part of personality. It is the executive part of personality It is the moral/Judicial part of personality
It is controlled by pleasure principle It is governed by realistic principle It observes the Ego, gives orders, and threatens it with punishment.
It satisfies the bodily needs without regard for logical reasons
It is the second part of the personality. It decides whether something is good or bad
It is illogical It serves as a mediator between the Id and Reality
It strives for perfection
It contains both the life and death instinct
It seeks for the best time before obtaining maximum pleasure.
It persuades the Ego to replace moralistic ones.
Its main aim is to reduce tension related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulse. It is the second part of the personality
It is the logical part of the personality.
It is made up of the conscience and the ego-ideal
Loopholes/Short Comings/ Weaknesses of the Theory
1. There is no empirical justification of the Id, Ego, and the Superego. Thus, the theory is hypothetical, it is just by guessing.
2. There is little evidence to show that children are morally mature around six (6) years of age. Some younger children do exhibit some characteristics of right and wrong.
3. Another criticism is that, Freud’s theory states that, children of single parenthood tend to have low level of moral development. But there is no evidence to support this claim.
4. The link between parents and children morality can be explained in other ways; for example in terms of learning theory.
5. The id, ego, and superego are not seen or not real, hence, it is difficult to believe them and their functions.
Similarities Between Freud and Piaget’s Theory
• They were all developmental psychologist
• They all contribute to moral education
• They all provided three levels of morality
• They all based their theories on children
• They all used adolescence for their research work
Differences Between Piaget and Freud’s Theories
Piaget’s Theory Freud’s Theory
Piaget’s theory was based on cognitive development but Freud’s theory was based on psychoanalysis
Piaget’s theory dealt with cognitive domain Freud’s theory deals with affective domain
Used stories and a game of marble to for his research Dealt with the behaviour of mentally ill patience
Piaget used rules and Showed three elements interacted with each other.
UNIT 4
B. F Skinner: Social Learning Theory of Moral Development
Behavioural/Learning Theory of Moral Development By B. F. Skinner
Background
B.F Skinner is a behavioral psychologist who became well known for his work with “rats” using his device of “skinner Box”
B F Skinner is highly associated with the social or behavioral learning theory. This theory unlike the psychoanalytic theory is hypothetical. It therefore dismisses the psychoanalytic approach to moral development. Psychologists have been arguing that, whiles B F Skinner’s unempirical.
For the purpose of our study, and with respect to the social learning theorists, moral behaviour can be explained through three main mechanisms. These three mechanisms include the following:
a. Reinforcement and Rewards
b. Punishment or Threat of it.
c. Modeling or Imitation
Reinforcement/Rewards
These are consequences (good impact the child receives) that cause a response or desired behaviour to be repeated. They are consequence that increases the frequency of desired behaviour; they increase the rate at which behaviour occurs.
The principle of Reinforcement and Reward is based on Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning under which there is the assumption that behaviour can be modified or changed through reinforcement techniques. It is believed that, reinforcement or reward increases the probability of a good behaviour being repeated.
According to B F Skinner, children can be taught to adopt a kind of behaviour described as good through parental praise or approval. For this, Skinner claims, children can be trained to be respectful, truthful, honest, obedient etc. through reward and reinforcement.
On the other way round, when bad behaviour is punished, then bad behaviour is associated with unpleasant feeling and will not be repeated. This is known as Learned
Avoidable Reaction
This principle thus agrees to the fact that, behaviours which are rewarded or reinforced will be repeated and those which are not will die out. As parents and teachers, praise and attention given to our children will serve as a morale booster.
Punishment/ Threat of it/ Negative Reinforcement
Punishment is also described as negative reinforcement. Psychologists are of the view that, behaviour can also be shaped through the use of negative reinforcement or punishment. This punishment can be physical, verbal rebuke, withdrawal or privileges. Etc.
Punishments are meant to inhibit undesired behaviours. The sense of it is to avoid future occurrences of bad behaviour in the future. Punishment in any way should not use for destructive purpose but for the corrective and inhibit ant of future occurrence of such bad behaviour.
It is therefore noted by psychologists that, parents who use “inductive” means to correct their children and up getting more matured children.
Induction here means using reason and argument to point out to the child that, certain forms of behaviours are wrong and persuading them to change their behaviour.
Modeling or Imitation
This is a situation whereby children learn to adopt acceptable behaviours through either imitation or modeling. By this, children watch behaviours of either their parents or other people and put such behaviour into practice.
Children for example learn to adopt sex – linked occupational, domestic or any other role of either their parents or relatives.
Again, it is to be noted that, children do not learn only from what they are told to do by adults but also, they learn from what they see adult doing. This is to emphasis that, children learn through modeling and imitation. Besides, children learn much from books, television, films, internet etc.
It is to be re – echoed that, children learn different kinds of behaviour by imitating others. Children who observe aggressive behaviour end up behaving aggressively while those who observe non – aggressively. Parents are thus advised to be very selective on the type of films their children watch. For such films have their effects on the children.
Educational Implications of Skinner’s Theory
1. Children learn by imitation hence; teacher should set good examples in their daily live in the subject they teach for children to emulate.
2. Parents should punish and praise their children for their good and behaviour with the belief that it will teach them to behave properly.
3. Teachers should give rewards and praise for pupils good behaviour. This will help sustain such good behaviours.
4. The teacher should also make good use of punishment where it is due.
5. Research suggests that children can develop an understanding of moral rules from TV programmes. This supports the idea that models have an impact on children’s behaviour.
6. Teachers to make good use of examples when teaching.
7. Teachers to use appropriate TLRs when teaching.
Loopholes of Social Learning Theory by Skinner
1. The theory makes people behave hypocritically. That means that, people behave mainly because of the reward they will get.
2. The theory place very little emphasis on the age of the children in so far their brain development is concerned.
3. It is difficult to test the theory in the real world. People with similar background can behave differently in different situations.
4. the emphasis is on conduct or behaviour to the neglect of moral reasoning
EXERCISES
Section A
1. Who is the exponent of the social learning theory stresses modeling/imitation, punishment and reward?
2. Identify any three mechanisms by which behaviour be shaped or changed.
3. What happens to children if they are praised or encouraged for their good behaviour?
4. Mention any two instruments of punishment that can be used to change or shape the behaviour of children.
5. State in sentence, what you consider to be the desired effect of punishment.
6. What is meant by the phrase “learned avoidable reaction”?
7. In your own word, explain the meaning of “inductive discipline”
SECTION B
1 a. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the social learning or behavioral theory.
b. State three lessons can moral educators learn from the above theory?
2. What is the relevance of social learning theory to the moral educator?
UNIT 5
Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory of Moral Development
Introduction
Albert Bandura born on 4th December, 1925 as a Canadian-American psychologist. He is the chief proponent of the ‘Social Learning Theory’. Bandura is noted for his Bobo Door Beatdown Experiment. In this theory, he emphasised the importance of Observation Imitation and Modelling the behaviour, attitude and emotional reaction of others. In his theory, he emphasised how both environment and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behaviour. To Bandura therefore, learning by children actually takes place through three main ways as already mentioned.
Nature of Social Learning Theory
Social Learning theory which is also called observational learning, focuses on how we learn by observing the behaviour of others. Social learning theory provides a link between the behavioural and the cognitive approaches. For example, students in key boarding class may learn how to type capital letters by observing how the teacher does so.
One classical thing about Albert bandura’s theory was about how he and a group of psychologists conducted an experiment on both aggressive and non-aggressive behaviours. In the earlier studies with his friend psychologists, they showed a group of children some films with aggressive content, in which an adult punched an inflated dol; they showed another group of children some films that showed non-agress8ve behaviours. They then compared the behaviour of both group of children at play. The researcher saw that all the children who watched the aggressive videos showed aggressive behaviour during play while those who watched the non-aggressive behaviours showed non-aggressive behaviour during play (Bandura and Walters, 1963).
Bandura’s research and many other more research works has therefore showed that, children who are exposed to aggressive behaviours are most likely to behave aggressively while those who are exposed to non-aggressive behaviours are most likely to behave non-aggressively. It could therefore be concluded here that whatever that children watch or observe has a greater impact on their lives.
Educational implications of Bandura’s Theory
Ø Teachers are to set up good behaviour in their schools and classroom for children to emulate since they are the potent force in shaping the behaviour of their leaners.
Ø In the classroom the behaviour of peers and teachers which have received recommendation can produce successful consequence.
Ø Expose your JHS students to a variety of exemplary lives and symbolic models.
Ø To enhance efficiency, teachers are to teach basic skills with mastery to serve as examples to students.
Ø Teachers should not condone or accept any unacceptable behaviours in the classroom since they are condemnable
Ø Have students see successful models.
Ø Present task that are challenging but achievable to learners.
Ø Biographies of people who led good lifestyle should be made known to learners to serve as a point of reference to learners.
Ø Teach step by step, methodically.
Motivation is very important in teaching as a professional teacher.
Be selective of your words as a teacher since they have the greatest impact on your learners. Speak good English. Etc.
UNIT6
Theories of Religious Development
Ronald Goldman: Religious Thinking of the Child from Childhood to Adolescence
THE WORKS OF THE RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTALISTS
In his book” Religious thinking from childhood to Adolescence” (1964) Goldman discovered that; religious thinking follows Piaget’s Developmental pattern of cognitive. In his later book, “Readiness for Religious” (1965), Goldman presented a new approach of Religious Education. Goldman demanded that, we should find out from the child himself what was going on his mind as a result of different process to which we are expressing him, that is what the child is able to think of at a point in time. Goldman tested a number of children in a clinical interview. In the first place, the children were asked to explain three pictures: First, a child entering a church with a man and a woman. Second, a child kneeling and praying beside. Thirdly, a child looks at torn bible. The children were asked various questions based on what they feel about what they saw.
Secondly, part of the test used a tape recording of simple paraphrase of three biblical stories of Moses at the burning bush., (Ex 3:1-6), the Israelites crossing the red sea (Ex 14) and the temptation of Jesus Christ (Matt 4:1-11, Lk 4:1-13). The children were then questioned about these stories.
Goldman then analyzed the recorded responses according to the stages of the children. He examined such concepts as God, His nature, His holiness, His powers over nature, His relationship with man, His divine Justice, His divine communication, concepts of miracles, concept of the church, concept of prayers, and concept of the Bible.
Goldman and two panels comprising more than forty theological and educational psychologists
Conversant with Piaget’s level of thinking did the analysis of the responses of the children. His finding led him to propound the theory of the child’s Religious thinking which we put into five (5) stages. These stages are
Stage one. Pre- Religious thinking (5-7years +)
Stage two. Sub-Religious thought I (7-9years)
Stage three. Sub-Religious thinking II (9-11 years+)
Stage four. Personal Religious thought stage I (11-13years)
Stage five. Personal Religious thought stage II (13-14years+)
Let us now look at these stages into details.
STAGE ONE. Pre-Religious thinking (5-7years+) Characteristics
· It is an intuitive stage
· This stage starts from 5-7 years of age
· The child has no moral insight into religious issues
· The child cannot think logically
· The child cannot revers his thought
· They cannot go beyond the literal meaning of biblical issues
· Prayer is seen to be magical
· Children are so egoistic
· God is seen as a tall man with long robe and long beer.
· They see God as father Christmas
· Prayer is materialistic
STAGE TWO. Sub-Religious thought I (7-9years) characteristics
· The child is in a transition stage
· God is still seen as a tall man with a long robe and bear
· The age limit spans from 7-9 years
· Children are still egocentric
· Children confuse God with Jesus
· They still see prayer to be magical
· They are egocentric in prayer
· The bible is still understood literally
· The child cannot still think in an abstract term
· Logical thinking is still impossible
STAGE THREE. Sub-Religious Thinking stage II (9-11years+) characteristics
· The age limit is from 9-11
· It is a stage of concrete operational thinking
· Biblical issues are still understood literally
· They still think God speaks with a deep voice
· They are still egocentric in prayers
· Children still think God speaks with a clear voice.
· Logical thinking starts if it is tangible.
STAGE FOUR. Personal Religious Thought Stage I (11-13years).
· Starts from age 11-13
· This is another transition stage from concrete to abstract
· Children begin to engage in a more logical thinking
· Children at this stage attempt to go beyond stories to form hypothesis
· Belief at this stage is stronger than unbelief
· Children begin to go beyond literal meaning of biblical issues than before
· Now have the tendency to think of God to be in heaven
· Children start to think in abstract terms.
· They see Jesus as someone who led a real normal life
STAGE FIVE. Personal Religious Thought stage II (13-14 years+) characteristics
· This is a stage of abstract thinking
· Children now think hypothetically
· God is unseen than seen
· Do understand religious issues now
· Starts to give natural meaning to religious issues
· They can hypothesis
· Logical thinking is possible
· The child’s thinking is consistent
· They show interest in the mission of Jesus
· Jesus is seen to be a good man who performed so many miracles.
Educational Implication/Classroom Implication
The educational implications of Goldman’s theory are as follows:
· The theory tells teachers to teach considering the age of children
· It tells teachers to teach from known to unknown.
· It tells teachers to use appropriate TLRs when teaching
· It tells teachers to link lessons to pupils RPK
· It tells teachers to consider the content of every lesson they teach.
· It tells teachers to use appropriate methods when teaching.
· It tells teachers to chunk when teaching
· It tells RME teachers to motivate children when teaching.
According to Goldman, teachers fail in teaching Religious Education due to the following reasons:
1. Goldman asserts that, teachers show ignorance of the process of intellectual development. Consequently, they tend to teach too much too soon.
2. Teachers fail because, they present RME lessons or materials to children whose intellectual equipment is inadequate to understand.
3. Goldman claims the need of the child is not really understood. To him, the child has no religious needs. The child only needs emotional, physical and intellectual needs
Suggested solution
These are suggested solutions offered by Goldman.
a. He proposes an across-subject approach in the education of young children. This means RME lesson go off and all work becomes the learning of life themes
b. There should be a well-prepared syllabus to take care of learners at any stage in life.
c. He advocated, the experimentally-based, and where possible, spontaneous worship as probably the most effective form of religious education at this stage.
Criticism of Goldman’s Research
§ Goldman’s work was criticized by many psychologists on ground of education and psychology.
§ He failed to distinguish between his research findings and his own opinions
§ Goldman did not take the affective aspect of man into consideration
§ His stories for the research work have also been criticized. Scholar claims Goldman’s stories were very difficult. E.g. the burning bush or the crossing of the Red Sea.
§ His work was only on the child’s religious development; hence the work is criticized to be incomplete.
EXERCISES
Section A
1. In a sentence, state the benefit you derived from learning Goldman’s theory of religious thinking.
2. Mention one of the stages of Religious thinking according to Roland Goldman.
3. At what stage of Goldman’s theory do children go beyond a story to form a hypothesis?
4. What stage of religious development do children consider prayer as magical and God as a human being?
5. State any two limitations each of the first two stages of Religious development.
Section B
1. (a) What were the main findings of Goldman’s research?
(b) Of what influence is his research to the Ghanaian teacher of religious education?
2. (a) Identify the five stages of Goldman’s religious thinking.
UNIT 7
Michael Grimmitt: Developmental Limitations in Religious Growth
Developmental Limitations in Religious Growth by Michael Grimmitt
There are development limitations associated with human development according to Grimmitt (1987). This was also attested by Ronald Goldman (1991). To Grimmitt, there are limitations to growth and development imposed by immaturities of various kinds, and that a teacher’s inability to identify the exact nature of the limitations will result in mental cruelty, inefficiency as well as misapplied educational efforts. In RME, it is generally recognized that developmental limitations exists and that children are taught to match with their immaturities.
These limitations of children according to Grimmitt, may be as a result of their natural growth and their inexperience. The teacher may know the experiences which are consistent with a child’s development because where too little experience is supplied, learning becomes slow and vice versa. Therefore, experiences should be a realistic one.
According to Grimmitt, religious growth is dependent upon all other growth. This is so because, unless a child has a fairly wide range of experiences to draw upon in life, he/she cannot begin to interpret and relate them to a theological world view. This is to imply that children learn better with experiences from life.
Types of Developmental Limitations
1. Intellectual Limitations
In the pre-school years children go through several intellectual limitations. This subsequently affect or restrict their thinking. Such intellectual limitations include:
i. The child being so egocentric by nature: here, the child seem to understand only things happening here and there without thinking objectively about the future. They understand what happens directly here and now. Their concertation is only about them and nothing else.
ii. Again, the child is Monofocal (single focus) in his/her religious thinking. Here, the child is unable to relate one religious’ facts with another with accuracy. He/she cannot generalise religious issues but can only deal with religious fact at a point in time. Here, the think thinks that things of similar characteristics are the same though not the same.
iii. Children cannot reverse their thought. They have no intellectual checks about mistakes or not.
2. Linguistic Limitation
Here, children though acquire large number of vocabularies, they are unable to understand them well and use them appropriately. However, children can acquire religious language through the following ways:
· Learning it through their conversation
· Hearing it during congregational worship
· Listening to religious preaching at school assemblies
· During Sunday schools
· Through the singing and teaching of religious songs
· Through the teaching of RME.
3. Restricted Experience of Children
According to Grimmitt, the younger the child, the less expensive his/her experience in life. This actually explains why children make immature judgement on issues in society. According to Grimmitt, children have restricted experience because of the following reasons:
· Not having lived on this earth for long enough.
· Lack of opportunities offered by the environment.
Educational Implications of the Theory
Ø Teachers are to encourage children to work in groups/teams so as to explore.
Ø Teachers should use religious language appropriately for children to imitate.
Ø Relevant and appropriate T/L/Rs should be used to encourage and expose children to learning so as to ensure proper understanding. T/L/Rs such as Visuals, Audios and Audio-Visual could be used to present lessons on RME.
Ø Teachers are to consider readiness of children before they teach a particular RME lesson so as to get to know the vocabularies to use.
Ø Teachers are to consider children emotions in teaching RMR lessons
Ø Teachers to consider children intellectual level in teaching RME lessons
Ø Teachers to link RME lessons to children RPK.
UNIT 8
Empirical Research on Religious Education
Sir Richard Acland: ‘We Teach Them Wrong’ Religion of the Young
“WE TEACH THEM WRONG”
Introduction
Sir Richard Acland was a British and Labour MP from 1947 – 1955. He worked actively as an MP for 11years and was very active in contributing to religious matters of the House. He later resigned as an MP and started manufacturing bomb. i.e. (Hydrogen bombs). He also joined the teaching professional because he had a degree.
The experience he faced as an unprofessional teacher of religion made him enter a teacher training college where he trained as a professional teacher.
Acland thought that, the methods of teaching religion were very wrong. This compelled him to come out with his controversial title of his book “We teach them wrong”. He published the problems he encountered in the classroom and the solutions to them.
Method
Based on the observation with the research conducted by Institute of Basic Education, Acland research the lack of interest of students in Religious Education class. Questions for the research work were set to 564 pupils from different schools in the following ways:
1. Technical schools 202
2. grammar schools 547
The number of boys and girls in all cases were almost the same. An example of one of the questions posed was, “Name two prophets who gave the names to books in the Old Testament (OT). The following were the results.
Modern boys = 86%
Modern girls = 72%
Technical boys = 90%
Technical girls = 79%
Grammar boys = 77%
Grammar girls = 64%
The above statistics or figures show those students who could not answer the questions correctly.
Findings of Acland’s Research
Sir Richard Acland’s experience and research of Institute of Education in Sheffield, UK, confirmed the fact that, Religious Education made little impact on the student to the extent that, they could not answer questions based on the Bible. He therefore accepted that, student alone should not be blamed. To Acland, we must study the following.
· The time-table
· The teacher
· The syllabus
· The scheme of work and
· The method of teaching
· the subject
For instance, he asserted that, during his time, RE appeared once a week on the time table and this affected student’s performance negatively.
Again, Acland claimed that, children of yesterday are different from children of today. For instance, while yesterday’s children live in pre-scientific era, children of today are living in a scientific era.
Besides, schooling in those days was by force. There was a law which suspended children who absented themselves from school for 28 days, but church was not by force.
Acland also claimed, children of today do have the “deeper” understanding of the Bible. They just understand it literally. To him, we should find new ways of teaching Religion to children of this scientific world.
Recommendations
Acland after his research work came out with the following recommendations for the methods were as follows:
1. Discussion method should use to teach R.E. This according to Acland is very good but teachers should make sure discussion methods does not convert or generate unimportant issues.
2. Acland recommended the child-centered method of teaching. Here, he explains that, teachers must show interest in the children. He claimed, by the use of the child-centered method and the discussion method, daily problems can be discussed. He further explained that, we should use the concentric approach in the child-centered method of teaching RE
3. Again, he said, the teaching from known to unknown approach should be used in teaching RE. This means, teachers should always teach what children know before proceeding to things they don’t know.
4. He said children at the primary school may be happy with the methodological expression of religion because they are still in the pre-scientific age hence have not lost their fundamental religious outlook.
5. We should search for the religious characteristics of Adolescents and find way of addressing their “needs” and “interest”
Acland’s Comments on the Time Table
Acland believes that, the subject ought to be accorded more time in the schools and that; it should be entitled “Religion and Life Discussion Period”. He emphasized that, there was the need for child-centered Religious Education. Our teaching of RE too should start with the child’s life.
Criticism of Acland’s Research
1. Acland dwelt so much on Christianity without touching on other religions such as ATR, Islamic etc.
2. Acland’s suggestions of the title of his book “We teach them wrong” did not go down well since he could not provide evidence to support it.
3. His views that, RE teachers must necessarily go to church is immeasurable. This is so because; the aim of teaching Religious Education in public Schools is not confessional.
4. His suggestion that students should be made to rest religious facts as in other subject, could be dangerous. This is true because, religion entails empirical and non-empirical facts.
EXERCISES
Section A
1. state any two findings of Richard Acland research
2. Mention two recommendations made by Acland.
3. in a sentence, describe how Acland commented on the syllabus for RI
4. According to Richard Acland, “there is no subject that we start from conclusion”. What does this statement mean?
5. What suggestions did Acland, make to the teaching of Religious Instruction?
6. According to Acland, what should be the title for RI?
7. According to Acland, we are confronted with a “different kind of animals ---- not urban and scientific”. What does this statement mean?
Section B
1. Discuss the recommendations of Acland in terms of Religious Education syllabus and teaching methods.
2. a. what was seen as wrong by Acland as far as the teaching of RE was concerned?
b. how does it differ from the scientific age with reference to Ghanaian School system?
3. Do you agree that anybody at all can Religious and Moral Education? Give reasons for your answer
UNIT 9
Harold Loukes: Teenage Religion
HAROLD LOUKE’S-TEENAGE RELIGION
Background
In 1958, a committee was set up by the Institution of Christian Education. The purpose of the committee was to find out the impact of religious education. Harold Loukes was appointed as a chairman of that Research Committee. The committee was made up head teachers, specialist in secondary school education and others who knew the problems and opportunities of modern sec schools
The Task or Duties of the Committee
The task or duties of the committee were as follows.
1. To enquire or investigate into the varying approaches to religious education.
2. the impact of Religious Education on students
3. What actually goes on in the child’s mind? It is to be noted that, the research was done in non-selective Senior Secondary Schools. This committee was made up of the following people
a. Specialized head teachers in Secondary Schools.
b. Other people well versed in running modern Secondary Schools. It is worth saying that the finding of this committee was publicized with the authors name bearing the title of the book.
Harold Louke’s Method of Study
The committee which undertook the research work was made not to have any intention of using the question method, instead, the children which were used for the research were made to speak for themselves through interviews whiles discussions were recorded on tapes.
Again, some students were asked to comment on selected statements from the tape recorder. This discussion covered topics such as: creation, belief in the bible, character of God, belief in Jesus Christ, is Christian worth dying for? is it boring to be good? is there any life after death? the usefulness of prayer, and the problem of suffering.
Other questions were on going to church and the relevance of religious instructions. These questions were posed to student between ages of 14 and 15.
Findings of the Research
Ø The study found out that, the adolescents were interested in religious issues, but yearned for more matured thinking.
Ø Student wanted to be sincere with religious beliefs and not just copying notes in their books without understanding them.
Ø Adolescents passed through religious rebellion at the age of 15 ½ for boys and 14 ½ for girls and through such periods, conflicts were resolved at the age of 20 years leading to religious stability.
Ø The research proved that, student had various shades of opinion ranging from orthodoxy, unorthodoxy and agnosticism.
Ø Three was a degree of personal constituency of adolescent or personal group of adolescents.
Ø The researcher however, identified three major problems faced by adolescents. These problems are:
A. Problems of Personal Relations
Ø Snobbery
Ø Peer/age group/friendship
Ø Sex/marriage/ family life
Ø Authority of parent and teachers
B. Problem of Personal Responsibility
v These include the following.
v The use of money.
v The use of leisure
v Work
v Prayer
C. Problem of Meaning.
v Suffering
v Death
v Life after death
v Learning.
Recommendations/ Educational Implication of Harold Louke’s Research
For better studies in religious education, Louke’s suggested the following.
Loukes maintained that, Christianity, if it is to be relevant must be relevant to the teenager. This should not be unempirical but must have meaning.
The teacher should raise children in proper discussion of problems of the modern world.
The teacher should raise themes in RME which are related to problems facing adolescence.
RME topics should comprise families and many other related topics in man’s life.
Loukes in his recommendations proposed two problems being.
a. “Problem Syllabus”
b. “Problem Method”
“Problem Syllabus”/ ‘Curriculum’
Here, Loukes suggested that, teacher should direct children to Biblical evidence as a means of helping them to address their Problems. Besides, he suggested that, scriptural evidence should form part of the religious education syllabus. Contents in R.E syllabus should be handled differently from the topics of scriptural purposes. Again, RE syllabus must be made up of life themes which are related to adolescents.
“Problem Method”
Loukes suggested that, methods for teaching RE should be the kind of method that will actively involve learners.
He further suggested that, there should be a cordial relationship between teachers and learners. The relationship between learners and teachers should always be good so as to ensure effective participation of learners.
Suggestion to the Problem of the Research by Loukes Research
1. His major suggestion was that, student should be encouraged to discuss issues. Emphasized discuss method.
2. Harold recommends copious participations of learners.
3. He advocated for learning through experience.
4. To Loukes therefore, good teaching simply means a process of dialogue about experience.
EXERCISES
Section A
1. Identify any two groups that were represented in the committee
2. Identify any two objectives of the committee of the Institution of Christian Education set up.
3. Name any two methods the committee of the Institute of Christian Education used to get their findings.
4. Outline any three findings of the research made by the committee, which was headed by Harold Loukes.
5. According to the committee set by the Institute of Christian Education, what are the three major problems adolescent are faces?
6. identify any three recommendations made by Harold Loukes
7. What does Loukes mean by saying that; discussion should not lead to “discursiveness”?
Section B
1. Analyze the findings and recommendations made by Harold Loukes in his research
2. Discuss in details the main ideas Harold Loukes is trying to put across to teachers of RE
3. Describe how you would use problems-centered approach in teaching a topic from either the primary or JSS RME syllabus.
4. What is the relevance of the Harold Loukes “Teenage Religion” to the teacher of RME in Ghana?
5. In what three ways has Loukes research influenced the preparation of the Basic Religious and Moral syllabus in Ghana?
GUIDED QUESTIONS
Section A
For items 1 to 5, indicate whether each statement is true or false by circling the letter that bears the correct answer
1. According to Harold Loukes, the bible – centered approach to religion must give way to the problem – centered approach.
a. True b. False
2. Richard Acland suggested that the teaching of religion must be focused on life themes.
a. True b. False
3. Ronald Goldman suggested that religious education should be given the title Religion and Life Discussion.
a. True b. False
4. Richard Acland suggested that because children of today live in scientific world, teaching materials and methods must be structured to suit them.
a. True b. False
5. Jean Piaget described children as “moral realists”, meaning they cannot consider the intention behind their actions.
a. True b. False
For items 6 to 10, each stem is followed by four options lettered A to D. read each question carefully and circle the letter that corresponds to the correct or vest answer.
6. Which of the following pictures was not used by Ronald Goldman in his research on Religious education?
a. Boy or girl at prayer c. children at Sunday school.
b. Boy or girl looking at mutilated bible d. family going to church
7. Which of these stories was not used by Ronald Goldman in his research on religious education?
a. Crossing the red sea c. the baptism of Jesus
b. Moses and the burning bush d. the temptation of Jesus
8. Richard Acland’s book entitled We Teach them wrong was published in the year...
a. 1961 c. 1971
b. 1963 d. 1973
9. Which of the following is not associated with the moral education theories?
a. Burrhus F. Skinner c. Richard Acland
b. Jean Piaget d. Sigmund Freud
10. According to Harold Louke’s theory, which of the following is not a problem of meaning?
a. Death c. resurrection
b. Life after death d. suffering
According to Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development, “good boy-nice girl orientation” is associated with what stage of development?
a. stage 2 b. stage 3 c. stage 4 d. stage 5
11. Which of the following development psychologist had the focus of his Religious/ Moral Education theory on the development of the affective domain?
a. Jean Piaget b. Lawrence Kohlberg
c. Ronald Goldman d. Sigmund Freud
12. Ronald Goldman used all these Biblical stories excepts one for his research on religious thinking of children and adolescence
a. Crossing the Red sea b. Moses and the Burning bush
c. The Baptism of Jesus d. The Temptation of Jesus
13. Which of the following pictures was not used by Ronald Goldman in his research on religious thinking of children and adolescence?
a. a child going to church with parents
b. a child kneeling and praying
c. a child looking at a torn Bible
d. a child playing with Father Christmas
14.Psychopath have great feelings for others
A. True
B. False
15. Harold Loukes advocated the replacement of the Bible centered approach with the problem approach
A. True
B. False
16. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, adolescents reason better than brilliant young children.
A. True
B. False
Post a Comment
Please, share your thought with us...