COURSE OUTLINE

The concept of learning has different definitions for different people. Some see learning as a process while others see it as a product or an outcome. The process is how (an experience leads to) learning the product (of learning) is the end result of an experience.

• The table shows the two ways learning looks like

Learning as a process	Learning as a product/outcome
Learning is:	Learning is:
• Acquiring knowledge and skills.	• A change in behaviours more or less permanent.
• Getting information.	• A sort of experience.
• Getting conversant with an idea.

The Concept Learning Defined

Two standard definitions of learning as given by Kimble and Wittrock are as follows:

Kimble (1960) defines learning as: “A relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice” A reinforcement is a reward.

Wittrock (1977) also see learning as: “The process of acquiring relatively permanent change in understanding, attitude knowledge, information, ability and skill through experience”

The leaning process

The following important issues would help the learner to understand learning better;

• Learning involves a change in behaviour

• The behavioural change is a result of acquired experience or practice;

• Such a change means the person has acquired an action potential or learning potential

• Such a change is relatively permanent.

• The change can be observed through the learner’s performance.

Types of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus begins to elicit a response through association with another stimulus.

How does classical conditioning occur?

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response).

Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the “conditioned stimulus”). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response.

The classic example is Pavlov and his deg. Meat powder naturally will make a dog salivate when it is put into a dog’s mouth; salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and salivation is the conditioned response (UR).

Then Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in the mouths they began to salivate. After uncurious pairing of the bell and the food, the dogs learned that the bell was a signal that the food was about to come and began to salivate just when the bell was ringing. Once this occurs the bell becomes the conditions stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell is the conditioned response (CR). When the (CS) is repeatedly presented alone, conditioning is extinguished (weakened or inhibited). After extinction seems to be completed, a rest period may lead to the temporary reappearance of a conditioned response. This is called spontaneous recovery.

Stimulus Generalization:- a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated with other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli. For example- a child who gets bitten by a black dog later becomes afraid of all dogs. The original fear evoked by the black dog has now generalized to ALL dogs.

2. Operant conditioning- (B.F. Skinner)

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behaviour.

Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary (comfortable; non-reflexive) behaviour is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced).

Note: Skinner referred to this as Instrumental conditioning/Learning.

Skinner believes that much of behaviour could be studied in a single, controlled environment (so he created a Skinner Box). Instead of observing behaviour in the natural would, he attempted to study behaviour in a closed, controlled unit. This prevents any factors not understudy from interfering with the study. As a result, skinner could truly study behaviour and specific factors that influence behaviour.

Skinner’s views of Operant Conditioning.

• Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that the behaviours studied in classical conditioning are reflexive (for example, salivating). However, the behaviours studies and governed by the principles of Operant conditioning are non-reflexive. So compared to Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning attempts to predict non-reflexive, more complex behaviours, and the conditions in which they will occur. In addition, Operant Conditioning deals with behaviours that are performed so that the organism can obtain reinforcement.

• There are many factors involved in determining if an organism will engage in behaviour just because there is food does not mean an organism will eat (time of day, last meal etc) So, unlike classical conditioning.

• Shaping:- This is an operant conditioning method for creating an entirely new behaviour by using rewards to guide an organism toward the desired behaviour (called successive Approximations). In doing so, the organism is rewarded with each small advancement in the right direction. Once one appropriate behaviour is made and rewarded, the organism is not reinforced again until they make a further advancement, then another and another until the organism is only rewarded once the entire behaviour is performed.

• In classical conditioning, the controlling stimulus comes before the behaviour. But in Operant Conditioning, the controlling stimulus comes after the behaviour. If we look at Pavlov’s meat power example, you remember that the sound occurred (controlling stimulus), the dog salivated, and then the meat powder was delivered.

Which Operant conditioning, the sound would occur, then the dog would have to perform some behaviour in order to get the meat powder as a reinforcement.

Principles of Reinforcement

Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events- those in which a reward is given; and those in which something bad is removed. In either case, the point of reinforcement is to increase the frequency or probability of a response occurring again.

Positive reinforcement:- give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is made. For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives a treat (positive reinforcement).

Negative reinforcement:- Take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is made. For example, stop shocking a rat when it presses the lever. It is a method of rewarding the behaviour you want to increase. It is a good thing- not a bad thing.

• Skinner also identified two types of reinforcers.

Primary reinforcer: Stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that precedes it (eg. Food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of the organism. These reinforcers are naturally reinforcing.

Secondary/ conditioned reinforcer:- A previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a primary reinforcer. For example, an organism may become conditioned to the sound of a food dispenser, which occurs after the operant response is made. Thus, the sound of the food dispenser becomes reinforcing.

Why Skinner’s Ideas were Controversial and Describe some major applications of Operant Conditioning?

Skinner has been criticized for repeatedly insisting that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behaviour and for urging the use of operant principles to control people’s behaviour. Critics argue that he dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and by seeking to control their cautions.

Skinner counted: Peoples' behaviour is already controlled by external reinforcers, so why not administer those consequences of human betterment?

Operant principles have been applied in a variety of settings. For example, in schools, online testing systems and interactive student software embody the operant ideal of individualized shaping and immediate reinforcement. In the classroom, skinner thought that our education system was ineffective. He suggested that one teacher in a classroom could not teach many students adequately when each child learns at a different rate. He proposed using leaching machines (what we now call computers) that would allow each student to move at their own pace. The teaching machine would provide self-paced learning that gave immediate feedback, immediate reinforcement, identification of problem areas, that a teacher could not possibly provide.

Differentiated Learning

• With differentiation in the classroom, instructors can manage what students learn, how students learn and how students are assessed. With its flexibility, differentiated learning/instruction allows teachers to maximize individual growth in the course content. Differentiated learning/ instruction is student-centred.

• Differentiated instruction is an activity-driven approach to education that guided students through a subject or course using a variety of projects, tasks or problem-solving activities.

• Differentiated instruction may mean teaching the same material to all students using a variety of instructional strategies, or it may require the teacher to deliver lessons at varying levels of difficulty based on the ability of each student.

The Advantages of differentiated instruction /learning

• Differentiated instruction is proactive;

In the differentiated instruction model, the teacher does not wait for students to fall behind before employing new learning strategies. Instead, with differentiated instruction, the teacher is proactive and takes a motivational and positive approach. Teachers prepare differentiated instructional techniques before the course begins, which helps prevent many students from ever falling behind. Teachers assume varied learning needs to accommodate for the various ways students master course materials.

• Differentiated instruction is qualitative:-

Differentiated instruction does not mean that teachers give more work to advanced students and less work to students that might struggle. Each student completes the same amount of work. However, the quality of the work required may vary according to ability, interest or previous content knowledge.

• Differentiated instruction takes multiple approaches.

With differentiation in the classroom, teachers can manage what students learn, how students learn and how students are assessed. With its flexibility, differentiated instruction allows teachers to maximize individual growth in the course content.

• Differentiated instruction is student-cantered

It presupposes that students learn in different ways and at different paces. Teachers using this instructional meted cultivate and facilitate diverse educational experiences designed to advance each student’s learning, regardless of their learning styles and background.

• Differentiated instruction is dynamic and organic

In a differentiated learning space, teachers and students learn together. Students focus on learning the course content while teachers tailor their instructional strategies to student learning styles.

• Differentiated instruction is rooted in assessment

Throughout the course, teachers continue to assess student learning through one-on-one conversations, student work, classroom observations and formal assessments. Teachers then iteratively design course content and instructional strategies based on the results of each assessment. With differentiated instruction, assessment not only help evaluate student mastery but also gauge teaching effectiveness.

Elements of differentiated instruction/learning

There are three main instructional elements that teachers can adjust to meet the needs of their learners:

• Content: The knowledge and skills students need to master

• Process: The activities students use to master the content.

• Product: The method students use to demonstrate learning.

Learning styles

Learning styles can be defined as, classified and identified in many different ways. Generally, they are overall patterns that provide direction to learning and teaching: Learning style can also be described as a set of factors, behaviours and attitudes that facilitate learning for an individual in a given situation.

Why are learning styles important?

They are important because most people have a preferred way to learn. Some learn best by listening, some learn to observe every step, while others have to do it to learn it. The fact is that individuals need all the three modalities to truly commit information to memory: visual, auditory and kinesthetic and read-write.

• Continually assess and adjust lesson content to meet student’s needs.

• Teachers who practise differentiation in the classroom may design lessons based on students’ learning styles.

• Group students by shared interest topic, or the ability for assignments.

• Assess students’ learning using formative assessment.

• Manage the classroom to create a safe and supportive environment.

The kinesthetic learning style:

This type of learning takes place in which the students carry out physical activities, rather than listening to a lecture or watching a demonstration. Favre (2009), Dunn and Dunn define kinesthetic learners as students who require whole-body movements to process new and difficult information.

Kinesthetic teaching strategies

• Work standing up:- Standing up allows students to flex their muscles, which affects the way their bodies internalize information. If you are a kinesthetic learner, standing while working can translate to better comprehension, focus and retention.

• Use small movement to help focus: Small movements are ideal for working without having to commit yourself to strenuous physical activity; this can provide enough distraction to enable your brain to retain information and focus better.

• Build exercise into your workday; Breaking up your time into smaller units and taking short breaks for exercise between tasks may have a positive effect on your mental abilities. Kinesthetic learning requires physical activity to grasp concepts.

• Use a highlighter and flashcards; If you are trying to retain new information, the physical aspect of preparing a flashcard or highlighting a sentence may be enough to spur your brain into action; Kinesthetic learners tend to like moving things and flashcards can aid in developing a moving schematic that your brain night prefers to words on a page.

• Approach topics creatively: Drawing out a diagram on a price of paper or a whiteboard can aid your memory and understanding. Creating your own content with mind mapping software, storyboarding or even a short video could help you memorize and recall concepts effortlessly

• Use role-play: If you are having trouble communicating or understanding ideas, try utilizing role-play, and this may prove easier for you to process the information and get your ideas across.

• Practice: For kinesthetic learners, practice is perhaps the most important part of learning. Repeatedly practice the task, and allow trial and error to serve as a learning tool for yourself and others.

• Find videos: Attempt to find videos that contain demonstrations of the tasks you are struggling with. Seeing it done can be extremely helpful even if it is through a screen.

Types of learners

There are four primary learning styles: Visual, auditory, read-write and kinesthetic. People learn using a variety of these methods, but one method is usually predominated. Familiarity with the characteristics of each learning style and associated strategies allows you to address the needs of each type of learner:

Visual Learners.

Visual learners are characterized by the following:

• Tend to be fast talkers

• They exhibit impatience and have a tendency to interrupt.

• They use words and phrases that evoke visual images.

• They learn by seeing and visualizing.

• Good spellers

• They are well organized

Your teaching strategy for visual learners should include the use of demonstrations and visually pleasing material and you should make an effort to paint mental pictures for learners.

Auditory Learners

Auditory Learners are characterized by the following;

• They speak slowly and tend to be natural listeners.

• They think in a linear manner

• They prefect to have things explained to them verbally rather than to read written information.

• They learn by listening and verbalizing.

• They lose concentration easily

• They read with whispering lip movements.

Your teaching strategy for auditory learners should sound good and should be planned and delivered in the form of an organized conversation.

Read-write Learners

Read-write learners are characterized by the following:

• They prefer for information to be displayed in writing, such as lists of ideas.

• They emphasize text-based input and output.

• They enjoy reading and writing in all forms.

Your teaching strategy for read-write learners should include writing out keywords in list form. The learners will learn by silently reading or rewriting their notes repeatedly. Writing out in their own words the ideas and principles that were taught or discussed. Organizing and diagram, grasp other visual depictions into statements and putting actions, charts and reactions into words.

They like multiple-choice tests.

Kinesthetic Learners.

Kinesthetic Learners are characterized by the following:

• They tend to be the slowest talkers of all.

• They tend to be slow to make decisions.

• They use all their senses to engage in learning.

• They learn by doing and solving real-life problems.

• They like hands-on demonstrations and case examples to be discuses and solved.

• They do well in creative subjects, such as art or drama.

• They have great motor memory.

• Generally, they are good at sports and physical activities.

Learning strategies

Learning strategies are used by students to help them understand information and solve problems. A learning strategy is a person’s approach to learning and using information. Students who do not know or use good learning strategies often learn passively and ultimately fail in school. Learning strategy instruction focuses on making the students more active learners by teaching them how to learn and how to use what they have learned to solve problems and be successful.

A learning strategies curriculum has the necessary breadth and depth to provide a well-designed scope and sequence of strategy instruction. The curriculum is divided into strands or categories of skills.

One strand address how student acquires information. It includes strategies for learning how to paraphrase critical information, picture information to promote understanding and remembering, are questions. Etc.

A second strand helps students study information once they acquire it. It includes strategies for developing mnemonics and other devices to aid the memorization of facts as well as strategies for learning new vocabulary. These strategies help prepare students for tests.

A third strand helps students express themselves. It includes strategies to help students write sentences and paragraphs, monitor their work for errors and confidently approach and take tests.

Purpose of learning/Instructional strategies

The learning strategies determine the approach for achieving the learning objectives and are included in the pre-instructional activities, information presentation, learner activities, testing and follow-through. The strategies are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance learning and are based on many types of learning styles.

Instructional/learning strategies

These are teacher strategies used to facilitate student learning. The teacher uses the strategies to help the students to learn, such teaching strategies lead students to reflect on their experience.

• Open the lesson/lecture with a question: Present an “opening question”, give students a moment to think about their response and then ask a few members of the class for answers. This provides the teacher with useful feedback on what students know and don’t know about the material being presented.

• Think pair-share: Is an active learning strategy that engages students with materials on an individual level, in pairs and finally as a large group. It consists of three steps. First, the teacher poses a prepared question and asks individuals to think about it quietly. Second, students pair up with someone sitting near them and share their responses verbally. Third, the teacher chooses a few pairs to briefly summarize their ideas for the benefit of the entire class. This helps the teacher gauge how well students have understood the content, perhaps shaping teacher discussions during the remainder of the period.

• Focused listing (Recall): Take out a sheet of paper and generate a list of terms or ideas based on the topic. Focused listing is a strategy in which students recall what they know about a subject by creating a list of terms or ideas related to it.

To begin, the teacher asks students to take out a sheet of paper and begin generating a list based on a topic presented. Topics might relate to the day’s assigned reading.

The teacher goes around the room and looks at students? Lists as they write.

• Brainstorming: This is an active learning strategy in which students ascend to recall what they know about a subject by generating terms and ideas related to it. In brainstorming, however, students are encouraged to stretch what they know by forming creative connections between prior knowledge and new possibilities.

Brainstorming can work well at the beginning of a lesson to gain students attention and prepare them to receive the day’s material.

• Blank slate/slide: one way to gain students’ attention and to remind yourself to stop for questions is to insert a blank slide into your presentation. Imagine a lecture hall. The teacher is discussing material, moving through slides, and then the screen goes dark. Students are immediately transfixed. Did the machine break? What is the teacher going to do? At this point, you have students’ full attention you can ask questions and move on to the next part of your lecture.

• Note-check: This is a strategy in which the teacher asks students to partner with someone nearby and compare their notes, focusing on summarizing key information and locating misconceptions. Students can also generate questions or store a problem posed by the teacher. The exercise can be completed in a little as two or three minutes.

• Two-minute paper: Summaries the most important point in today’s lesson. In this strategy, the teacher pauses and asks students to write in response to a question presented (on a PowerPoint slide). The strategy can be used at any point in a lesson, but it is particularly useful at the end as a way of encouraging students to summarize the day’s content.

• If you could ask one last question: Most teachers end their lessons by asking for questions. To encourage students to think deeply about the material before they leave the room, create a situation that asks them to come up with a final question. The teacher can choose students randomly and answer their questions in the time remaining. If collected in writing, the questions can also serve as a classroom assessment technique to help teachers judge how well their students are learning.

• Question and answer pairs. This can also be used as a strategy when it comes to teaching and learning.

• One final question: it is also a strategy for teaching and learning.

Nature of the Curriculum.

The term curriculum has been derived from the Latin word ‘currere’ which means a ‘race course’ or a runway on which one runs to reach a goal. Accordingly, a curriculum is the instructional and the educative programme by following which the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of life.

A curriculum is a “plan or program of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school” (Tanner and Tanner, 1995:158). According to Gatawa (1990:8), It is the totality of the experiences of children for which schools are responsible. “In summary” is all planned activities carried out under the guiding auspices of the school.

“All the learning, which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside and outside the school” (Kerr, 1968).

“Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the rounded whole of the knowledge and experience of the human race” (Frobel)

“curriculum includes all those activities which are utilized by a school to attain the aims of education” (Morroe)

“Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (pupils) according to his ideas (aims and objectives) (crow and crow) in his studio (school)

“The curriculum includes all the learners’ experience in or outside school that is included in a programme which has been devised to deep him developmentally, emotionally, socially, spiritually, and morally” (crow and crow).

The curriculum plays a vital role in attaining the aims and objectives of the education tend to. It reflects curricular and co-curricular tends in our institutions ie. The courses of the studies; the objectives of education and the methodology of teaching including teaching aids and evaluation methods.

Characteristics of a Good Curriculum

1. The curriculum is continuously evolving, it means curriculum evolved from one period to another to the present and also curriculum to be effective, it must have continuous monitoring and evaluation. It must also adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a modern and dynamic community.

2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people; A good curriculum reflects the needs of the individual and the society as a whole. It should also meet the challenges of times and make education more responsive to the clientele it serves.

3. The curriculum is democratically conceived:- A good curriculum is developed through the effort of a group of individuals from different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the interests, needs and resources of the learner and the society as a whole. The curriculum is the product of many mints and energies.

4. The curriculum is the result of a long-term effort:- A good curriculum is a product of a long and tedious process, and it takes a long period of time in the planning, management, evaluation and development of a good curriculum.

5. The curriculum is a complex of details: A good curriculum provides the proper instructional equipment and meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the student-teacher relationship, guidance and counselling program, health services, school and community projects, library and other school-related work experiences.

6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter:- For a good curriculum learning is developmental and classes and activities should be well planned, all good curriculum provides continuity of experiences.

The relationship between curriculum and syllabus

The relationship between curriculum and syllabus is that “syllabus is a part of the curriculum”. For this reason, a syllabus can be defined as the topics that are covered in a subject; whereas the overall syllabus along with the knowledge, personality development is known as the curriculum. The difference between the two is that a curriculum has a more broad base than a syllabus. The latter is made by the teachers whereas the former is decided by the government or administration. The relationship between curriculum and syllabus again is that both are outlines.

Curriculum Terminologies

To help clarify curriculum as a theoretical and practical phenomenon, certain terminologies have gained currency in curriculum textbooks and academic discussions on curriculum. It is important not to mistake the terminologies for types of curriculum. Some of these terminologies are as follows:

1. The Official Curriculum: The official curriculum, which is also variously referred to as the “prescribed,” “recommended; “explicit,” “intended,” “prescribed,” “recommended; curriculum”, refers to the officially prescribed programme of study and other aspects of school life which are usually documented. Goodlad (1984) says it is the subject matter, skills and values that policymakers expect learners are taught. The official curriculum represents the publicly announced expectations the school or training institution has for its learners.

2. The Actual Curriculum:- The actual, “operational” or “taught” curriculum; as it is variously called, describes what actually takes place in class by way of teaching and learning experienced by learners as a result of practical or real circumstances on the ground. In other words, the actual curriculum includes the topics and ideas teachers emphasize day today in the classroom and those that they actually test for.

Eisner (1994) explains that actual curriculum “is what occurs between teachers and students and between students and students”.

Cuban (1992) also describes the actual curriculum as “what teachers do (talk, ask questions, listen, organize classes into groups to present content, ideas, skills and attitudes”).

3. The Null Curriculum: Eisner (1994) is of the opinion that “schools teach much more and much less –than they intend to teach”. He has referred to the intellectual processes and content that schools do not teach as the “null curriculum”.

In other words, the null curriculum has to do with the options students are not afforded, the perspectives they may never know about, much less be able to use the concepts and skills that are not a part of their intellectual repertoire”, The null curriculum may be perceived as an indictment on the planned curriculum and poor quality teaching that takes place in the schools. The solution to minimizing the null or untaught curriculum is for curriculum designers to exercise much more imagination and thoroughness in the curriculum design work.

4. The Formal Curriculum: This has to do with activities for which the timetable of the school allocates specific periods of teaching time or which as in the case of the primary schools are included in the programme of work to be covered in normal school hours (Kelly, 1989).

5. The Informal Curriculum or Co-curriculum: The informal curriculum refers to those activities that go on, usually on a voluntary basis, oftentimes, after school hours, at weekends and or during holidays. This may take the form of sports, clubs and society meetings excursions and study trips, dining sections and the like (Kelly 1989): When such activities are perceived as additions to the academic curricula or course work, they are termed extra-curricula. On the other hand, when they are viewed as having important contributions to make to the personalities of learners by themselves and not merely as “extra”, they are termed co-curricula.

6. The Hidden Curriculum:- The term “Hidden curriculum” was first used by Edgar Friedenberg in the late 1960s to call attention to the fact that students learn more in school than what is included in the official curriculum. According to Kelly (1989), the hidden curriculum refers to “those things which pupils learn at school because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangement”. To put it in a simple way, the hidden curriculum refers to behaviours, attitudes and knowledge the culture of the school unintentionally teaches learners. In a hidden curriculum, learners learn more than their teachers can imagine.

7. The Enacted Curriculum:

This type of curriculum refers to the particular idiosyncratic way and manner in which teachers present the curriculum to the learners as they seek to facilitate learning. The idea of the enacted curriculum brings to the fore the fact that within the constraints of time and resources for the implementation of the curriculum, individual teachers exhibit high degrees of difference in the methods they use to aid students to learn.

8. The Experienced Curriculum: This type of curriculum is often the result of the operation of the concept of individual difference as learners interact with the curriculum. The individual difference comes about as a result of differences in the intellectual orientation of learners, their training and experience and other background factors. As an illustration of the experienced curriculum, learners may interpret the new things they are introduced to against the background of similar content or subject matter with which they are familiar. Thus, they may cite different examples from different subject areas to illustrate certain points they make based on their previous knowledge.

9. The Unintended Curriculum: The unintended curriculum is simply the unanticipated consequences of the planned and enacted curriculum. This concept recognizes the fact that learners are not passive recipients of what they are taught and that they tend to process whatever information is made available to them. As a result of this fact, the same piece of information that is made available to a group of learners may be processed differently by each individual learner, giving rise to a diverse range of behaviours, reactions and possibilities.

Basic Components of the Curriculum:

Curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a blueprint which leads the teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As a result, authorities have to design it in such a way that it could lead the teacher and the learner to meet the desired learning outcome. The basic components of the curriculum are;

• Curriculum Aims, Goals and objectives

• Curriculum Content or subject matter.

• Curriculum Experience.

• Curriculum Evaluation.

The above components of the curriculum are essential because they are interrelated to each other, each of these has a connection to one another.

Aims, goals and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”, the subject matter/content, what subject matter is to be included, the “learning experience” what instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed and the evaluation approaches, while curriculum evaluation is “what methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.

The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives. Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try what to drive at.

In the same manner, curriculum has content. Here, it contains information to be learned in school. It is an element through which the objectives are accomplished.

A primordial concern of formal education is primary to transmit organized knowledge in the distilled form to a new generation of young learners.

The traditional source of what is taught and learned in school is precisely the foundation of knowledge, therefore, the science and humanities provide the basis for selecting the content of school learning.

For the third component, the curriculum experience, instructional strategies and methods are the core of the curriculum. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the content in order to produce an outcome. These would convert the written curriculum to instruction. Moreover, mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision. For the fourth component, curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective curriculum. It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the curriculum. In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but interrelated to each other. These components mentioned should be always present in a curriculum. I could say that these are essential ingredients to have an effective curriculum.

The components/Elements of the curriculum are shown in the diagram below.

Basic Components of Syllabus

A syllabus sets the stage for course development and management. The construction of a well-defined syllabus makes the development and management of an online or on-campus course much easier.

The basic components of syllabus are as follows;

1. Teacher Information:- Regardless of whether you teach an online class or a face-to-face class, you should make your contact information readily available on your syllabus. All syllabi should include the teacher’s name, e-mail address, phone number and office hours. The relevance of other contact information depends on the type of class.

2. Course Description: A course description is a brief summary statement about the nature of a course. Well-written course description uses active voice, whole sentences and direct statements.

3. Course Objectives: Course objectives or outcomes, detail the specific goal of the course as they relate to student performance. A strong course objective is specific, measurable, clear, and related. To be specific, objectives must identify the performance that students must demonstrate for mastery. To be clear, objectives must articulate the sum of knowledge addressed in the course.

4. Course Methodology: Course methodology refers to how to class approaches student learning. Many online or face-to-face courses feature a variety of learning methods, including readings, case studies, tests, quizzes and discussions.

5. Grade Computation: The Grade computation section of the syllabus is the second section to which students give considerable attention. You should specify the value of each graded item in the course so that students know how to weigh their focus in the class.

6. Grading Criteria: Many students focus their attention on the section of the syllabus that lists the grading criteria. Adult learners especially value having clear guidelines they can follow as they complete their classwork. Therefore, you should spend time writing unambiguous grading criteria for each method you will use to grade students.

UNIT TWO

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS FOR INCLUSIVE JHS SETTINGS

Taxonomies of Educational Objectives

Taxonomy means a classification of learning/ educational objectives.

The first taxonomy of Educational objectives: Cognitive domain, the affective domain, Revision of the taxonomy.

What are Educational Objectives?:- It describes the goals toward which the education process is directed, the learning that is to result from instruction. When drawn up by an education authority or professional, objectives are usually called standards.

Taxonomies are classification systems based on an organizational scheme. In this instance, a set of carefully defies terms, organized from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract, provide a framework of categories into which one may classify educational goals.

The First Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:

1.Cognitive Domain

The idea of creating a taxonomy of educational objectives was conceived by Benjamin Bloom in 1956. He classified the cognitive domain into six major levels /categories.

These are; Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation.

The categories were designed to range from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. Further, it was assumed that the taxonomy represented a cumulative hierarchy, so that mastery of each simpler category was a prerequisite to mastery of the next, more complex one.

The taxonomy has also commonly been used in developing a test’s blueprint, providing the detail for guiding item development to assure adequate and appropriate curriculum coverage. Some standardized tests show how their test items are distributed across taxonomy categories.

2.The Affective Domain

In addition to devising the cognitive taxonomy, the Bloom group later grappled with a taxonomy of the affective domain- objectives concerned with interests, attitudes, adjustment, appreciation and values.

This taxonomy consisted of five categories arranged in order of increased internalization. Like the cognitive taxonomy, it assumed that learning at the lower category was a prerequisite to the attainment of the next higher one.

Here is an overview of the categories. Receiving, Responding, valuing, organization, characterization by a value or value complex. In addition, Elizabeth Simpson, Ravidrakumar Dave and Anita Harrow developed taxonomies of the psychomotor domain.

Revision of the Taxonomy

In 1995, Anderson and Krathwohl co-chaired a group to explore this possibility and the group agreed on guidelines for attempting a revision. Like the original group, they met twice yearly, and in 2001 they produced a Taxonomy for learning, Teaching and Assessing.

A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives hereinafter referred to as the revision. The revision had two dimensions based on the two parts of objectives;

(1) nouns describing the content (knowledge) to be learned and (2) verbs learn to do with that content; that is the processes they use in producing or working with knowledge.

The knowledge dimension:

The Knowledge category of the original cognitive taxonomy included both a content aspect and the action aspect of remembering. These were separated in the revision so that the content aspect (the nouns) became its own dimension with four categories:

(1) Factual Knowledge: (the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it).

(a) Knowledge of terminology

(b) Knowledge of specific details and elements.

(2) Conceptual Knowledge: (the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together).

(a) Knowledge of classifications and categories.

(b) Knowledge of principles and generalizations.

(3) Procedural knowledge:- (how to do something, including methods of inquiry and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques and methods).

(a) Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms.

(b) Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods.

(4) Metacognitive Knowledge: (knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition)

(a) Strategic Knowledge

(b) Knowledge about cognitive tasks including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge.

The process dimensions:

In the revision, the concepts of the six original categories were retained but changed to verbs for the second (process) dimension. The dimension’s categories are;

Remember: (retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory. Keywords used are; Recognizing, Recalling, state etc.

Understand: (determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral, written and graphic communication. Keywords used are: Interpreting, Exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, Explaining are;

Apply: (carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation). Keywords used are; Executing, Applying, Implementing etc:

Analyze: (breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose). Keywords used are; Differentiating, Organizing, Attributing.

Evaluate: (making judgments based on criteria and standards. Keywords used are; checking, critiquing etc.

Create: (putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an original product): Keywords used are; Generating, Planning, Producing etc.

Note The importance of the use of the Taxonomy is that is a good heuristic for teachers to understand the varying levels of cognitive, psychomotor and affective demand that teachers have outcomes for students and also it helps with assessments in terms of matching your assessment items to the level of your objectives.

NB: Read on psychomotor domain

Criteria for the selection of subject matter or content of the curriculum

The criteria for the selection of subject matter or content of the curriculum are as follows;

• Self-sufficiency

• Significance

• Validity

• Interest

• Utility

• Learnability

• Feasibility

Criteria for selecting the components objectives

• The objectives should include all important, outcomes of the course or subject matter.

• The objectives should be in harmony with the content standards of the state

• The objectives should be in harmony with the sound principles of learning

• The objectives should be realistic

•

Activity Curriculum

Part According to Tanner and Tanner, “Activity Curriculum is an attempt to treat learning as an active process. The objective of a curriculum was child growth through experience. Activity curriculum was also referred to as experience curriculum. The major premise of activity movements was that learners ought to be active rather than passive participants in learning.

Advantages

The method promotes a better understanding of a lesson among students as they learn the lesson by practising the task themselves.

It inspires the students to apply their creative ideas, knowledge and mind in solving problems.

It also helps learners psychologically as they can express their emotions through active participation in something useful.

Disadvantages

This method requires long term planning with details of the whole process before engaging the learners, the teacher has to make sure that all students have sufficient knowledge and skills regarding the task they are going to perform.

The objective of this method can be only be fulfilled if the planning of the lesson is flawless.

Personal supervision is needed for every activity which is not possible in school.

Activity curriculum is not applicable to all stages of education.

Integrated curriculum

An integrated curriculum is described as one that connects different areas of study by cutting across subject-matter lines and emphasizing unifying concepts. Integration focuses on making connections for students.

Advantages

• There is not enough time in the day to teach everything in isolation.

• They create a positive and collaborative learning environment.

• Integrated curriculum is real work-issues in real life are multidisciplinary.

• They intrinsically motivate students to succeed in real life.

• Students develop higher-level thinking skills.

Disadvantages

• Lack of time to plan effective units.

• Teachers are reluctant to put the time and effort into changing what they already do in the classroom to implement something that does not guarantee exceptional results.

• Teachers collaboration.

A successful integrative curriculum involves input from teachers from all different disciplines, such as maths, science or social studies. Coordinating schedules and agreeing on ideas across a variety of teachers is often a difficult task.

Emergent curriculum

Emergent curriculum is a philosophy of teaching and way of planning curriculum that focuses on being responsive to children’s interests to create meaningful learning experiences. It can be practised at any grade level.

The Benefits of Emergent Curriculum

• Children’s interests serve as the basis for program development.

• Expression of individual strengths is ensured.

• Unique learning needs are supported.

• Curriculum content is an extension of home/family life.

• Increased parental involvement is encouraged.

Diversity is celebrated in its fullest form.

THE SUBSEQUENT UNITS WILL SOON BE EDITED...

UNIT THREE

Creative Approaches

Having the ability or power to create. Characterized by originality of thought or inventiveness. Having or showing imagination, creative mind, designed to or tending to stimulate the imagination or invention.

Some creative approached used by teachers.

• Role-play: A role-play area is a fun and a “playful” activity but also a key component in children’s learning. It is a social space that develops speaking and listening skills as well us giving children the opportunity to reflect on and develop their knowledge of a topic, whilst sparking and enhancing creativity and imagination

The Benefits of Role-play in teaching

Role playing is an effective way for children to make sense of the world around them. The key benefits are;

1. Develops communication and language skills.

2. Allows children to act out and make sense of real-life situations.

3. Allows children to explore investigate and experiment.

4. Develops social skills as children collaborate with others.

5.Children learn to empathize with others taking part in a role play activity would usually mean that you are taking on the role of character which will teach children about empathy and understanding of different perspectives.

6. Sparks creativity and imagination.

7. Encourages children to express their ideas and feelings in a relaxed environment

8. Helps children learn about different cultures. Etc.

How to support children learning (Role-Play)

1. Ask focused, open ended questions not closed type question.

2. Take on a role/join in children’s role play and dressing up. This gives value to their play and reinforces the nature or role-play.

3. More also, allow children to lead their play.

(b) Games: Games are a fundamental way that humans interact and learn. They provide so many benefits for people of all interest and abilities. Children especially love playing games and these activities provide such great opportunity for them to practice so many skills.

The Benefits of using Games to Teach

1. Games are used to teach important social skills such as communicating verbally, sharing, waiting, taking turns and enjoying interacting with others

2. Games also increase the ability of people to focus and lengthen attention spans by encouraging the completion of an exciting enjoyable game.

3. Games also inculcate into the children how to obey rules and regulation.

4. For the adults, games are a fun and they play it to fuel their imagination, creativity, problem-solving abilities and emotional well-being.

5. Playing games, particularly board games, is a relevant way to preserve cognition and to prevent cognitive decline or dementia.

What is a song? A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches using patterns of sound and silence. songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition and variation of sections.

Music as a teaching tool, you can incorporate music into almost any class, and can be a great way to teach content and it doesn’t take special training or expensive resources.

The reasons for using songs in teaching

1. Songs always contain authentic, natural language:- This often contrasts the contrived stilted language found in many student texts of course songs can also go to the other extreme by using overly foul or otherwise objectionable language. With careful screening an extensive library of usable songs for language learning can be compiled.

2. A variety of new vocabulary can be introduced to students through songs:

Looking to boost student vocabulary with useful phrases, vocabulary and expressions; song is almost always directed to the native-speaking population so they usually contain contemporary vocabulary, idioms and expressions.

3. Songs can be selected to suit the needs and interests of the students: In English especially, so many songs are available that selection of songs with suitable themes, levels and vocabulary is not at all difficult. Allowances can also be made for complexity or simplicity of language, depending on the students by selecting and using suitable songs.

4. Grammar and cultural aspects can be introduced through songs:- Most if not all songs have a recurring theme or story. So, excerpting cultural elements is usually a possible but often overlooked aspect of using songs. It makes the understand of the lesson easy.

5. Time length is easily controlled:- Whether you have an hour, 30minutes, or only 15minutes a song can be used in the course of a planned lesson to help better understanding. Used of songs is very flexible.

(d) Digital technologies:- Are electronic tools, systems, devices and resources that generate, store or process data. Well known examples include social media, online games, multimedia and mobile phones. Digital learning is any type of learning that uses technology. It can happen across all curriculum learning areas.

How to use digital device to Teach?

1. Use mobile learning and social media to create a community:- These models of the digital classroom allow students to engage in the learning process with then personal devices. Tablets, laptops and smartphones expand the boundaries of the classroom and encourage a stronger sense of community, both inside and outside of school. Student can keep in contact with peers and access their assignments and lessons, all on the fly.

2. Embrace a Philosophy of Formative Assessment:- Formative Assessment allows teachers to better gauge their students’ comprehension of class concepts. When combined with digital solutions, struggling students can be identified and receive help before their grades start to drop.

3. Put communication and clarity First:- Because the digital classroom encourages students to be more autonomous and allows for greater self-regulation, it is imperative that educator communicate their goals and grading standards in a clear manner. Students should have access to real-time feedback on their assignments and be able to view their grades within seconds. This way students can track their own progress as they strive to meet the teacher’s standards.

4. Take Advantage of E-books and Digital content:- Teachers must look at the benefit of E-book and online resources. The biggest benefit it cost. E-books and online texts are usually cheaper than physical textbooks and these excess funds can then be used for other resources. The digital reading list can also be continuously updated by teachers to provide the most relevant content for student.

5. Upload Online Lectures:- Teachers should flip the classroom. Allowing students to view the lecture position of the lesson plan on their own time puts a lot of responsibility on them, but it frees up a large portion of class time for more collaborative work. This changes the dynamic of the classroom from teacher-focused to student-centered.

6. Establish peer-Assisted learning:- Using digital tools like one note, educators can encourage peer-assisted learning in the classroom. Completed assignments can be shared and accessed by different students and students can offer their suggesting for improvement in the documents themselves.

7. Incorporate Interactive Learning:- Interactive learning is a key to student engagement in the digital classroom. It allows the teacher and students to use technology in collaborative ways and get the most out of their digital education.

8. Personalize Instruction:- When students view lectures on their own time, teachers can use class time to concentrate on collaborative work, discussion and any confusion students may have about the class. Personalized learning platforms can be used to engage students and make them feel more excited about class.

9. Have Brainstorming Sessions in class:- Class time can be used to encourage brainstorming sessions. In these sessions, students are free to be creative and express their ideas without being stigmatized for giving wrong answers. Open discourse enables educators to evaluate students’ understanding of concepts and pair these students with peers who compliment their weaknesses.

10. Give Breaks:- Traditional pedagogy has shied away from breaks, but with the amount of digital consumption that takes place in the digital classroom, breaks are needed to avoid screen addiction. Educators should establish times when students cannot access their devices. Short bursts of physical activity revitalize students and combat educational fatigue.

(e) Story felling: Is a means for sharing and interpreting experiences. Storytelling can be used as a method to teach ethics, values and cultural norms and differences. Learning is most effective when it takes place in social environments that provide authentic social cues about how knowledge is to be applied.

Reasons why storytelling is an effective teaching tool

Once you decide to implement story-telling in to your teaching, make sure to keep the following things in mind to ensure the highest level of impact on your students.

• The stories you fell should be short and to the point. This helps keep the student’s attention. If your story is too long then there is a greater possibility that your students will lose interest. So, make it short, sweet and to the point.

• The stories you tell should be easy to understand so the teacher message does not get lost. If you use big words, or complicated storylines it will be easy for the student to get confused and stop listening. So, make it an easy and enjoyable lesson.

• The stories you tell should spark emotion within your students. If a story is significant to you it will show in your delivery and will then become significant to your students as well. So, make emotion a priority.

• The stories you tell should have a final lesson at the end that ties in your initial thought is clear at the end of your story, then your students will take away more from the experience. So, make your message follow through by using story telling as a teaching tool in the classroom, you are ensuring that a message is reaching your students in efficient and effective ways.

Why are story telling/stories important for children?

Stories play a vital role in the growth and development of children, for that matter its importance.

1. Confidence levels:- Children who can read well are more likely to have higher confidence levels. This will benefit them in school as they will feel able to participate fully in activities. Another part of building confidence and self-esteem is knowing where you fit into the world.

2. Language and learning:- Stories are a great way to introduce new words and ideas into child’s language, starting with picture books for the very young, working up to more complex novels for teenagers. Stories can help children learn about concepts, such as shapes, size space and colour. Etc.

3. Relaxation: Stories can be helpful for relaxation, before bedtime for example. They allow children to forget the stresses and strains of the day and indulge in fantasy for a while.

4. Development of imagination:- Stories help to develop a child’s imagination by introducing new ideas into their world. Ideas about fantastical worlds, other planets, different points in time and invented characters. It will encourage the children to realize that they can and should imagine anything they want.

5. Copying with Feelings:- When children read stories or listen to stories that contain feelings it can help them understand and accept their own feelings. It helps them understand that there are other children who feel the same way and they are not alone. This help children to understand that feelings are normal and should be expressed.

(e) Modelling:- A conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the composition of concepts which are used to help people know, understand or stimulate a subject the model represents. Conceptual model may refer to models which are formed after a conceptualization or generalization process.

Research has showed that modeling is an effective instructional strategy in that it allows students to observe the teacher’s thought processes. Using this type of instruction, teachers engage students in imitation of particular behaviours that encourage learning.

How to be A Great teacher through modeling in the classroom

For classroom management-related instruction, the most effective teachers rely on modeling more than any other strategy. This is because showing students what you expect is infinitely more powerful, more meaningful and more memorable than voice instruction will ever be; making you a great teacher in the classroom, the following issues needs to be followed;

1. Model every routine:- Anything and everything your students do repeatedly turning in homework, working in small groups should be modeled and standardized into a routine. Routines are key to effective classroom management. They save gobs of time, improve behavior dramatically and deep your students focused on learning.

2. Know what you want:- For modeling to be effective, you must know exactly what you want from your students. Before starting any modeling session, create in your mind’s eye the perfect scenario for collecting science materials, for example or using learning centers.

3. Be one of them:- When you model, do not stand in the front of your classroom trying to mimic what you want your students to do. Instead, show them what you expect by actually doing it as if you are one of them. Sit in a table group and to through the precise steps you want your students to take. Be sure to include proper behaviours, attitudes and conduct along the way.

4. Speak sparingly:- Although it is smart to accompany your modeling with verbal instruction, it is best not to be overy explanatory. Your physical movements and actions should do most of the talking for you. Instructions only support your modeling.

5. Utilize helpers:- You may have to choose students to model or role-play alongside you. For example, if you are showing your students how to work in literature circle groups, you will want to model it at a table with several students acting as group members.

6. Observe and verify:- Good teacher do alt of observing, because whenever you ask something of your students, you must verify they do it correctly. Watch closely as they go through the steps, the procedures, the routines, everything you have taught and modeled for them. And if ever they fail to give you what you want stop them in their tracks and sent them back to do it again.

Importance of modeling in teaching

• It enables the students to engage in robust cognitive and social task.

• It helps students to acquire information, ideas, skills, value, way of thinking and means of expressing themselves.

• It trains the student on how to learn.

Experiential Learning Approach

• Experiential Learning is the process of learning through experience and is more specifically defined as “learning through reflection on doing”.

• Experiential learning is also the application of theory and academic content to real-world experience either within the classroom, within the community which advances program or course-based learning outcomes that are specifically focused on employability skills.

Example of kolb’s diagram on experiential learning

Importance of Experiential learning

When students participate in experiential learning, they gain the following advantages;

• Better understanding of course materials.

• They have broader view of the world and an appreciation of community.

• They also have insights into their own skills, interests, passions and values.

• Self-confidence and leadership skills.

• Positive professional practices and skill sets.

• It provides opportunity for creativity

• It provides opportunity for Reflection.

• Improved Attitudes towards learning

Examples of Experiential Learning are;

Group work

Group work involves students working collaboratively on set tasks in or out of the classroom. Group work includes any learning and teaching tasks that require students to work in groups.

Types of group work Activities to engage students

1. Group work; creating: A great way for students to demonstrate their knowledge is to retrieve and synthesize information. This can be achieved by collaborating with their pears to create something new. Although students can complete these activities individually, collaboration lets them practice skills they will need in the future /workplace.

2. Group work: Investigating:- Students can work together to investigate a question and report their finding back to the class. Student can also generate their own problems or case studies using course content.

3. Group Work: Critiquing: With a critique, students have to apply their knowledge and problem-solving skills, especially if the critique must include possible solutions on which the group must agree.

4. Group work: Games and more: Other ways to engage students in collaboration and group work is to include multiplayer games, which require the players to collaborate.

The Benefits of Groupwork

Group works/projects can also help students develop skill specific to collaborative effort, allowing students to.

• Tackle more complex problems than they could on their own

• Delegate roles and responsibilities.

• Pool knowledge and skills

• Hold one another accountable

• Develop stronger communication shills

• Develop new approaches to resolving differences

• Establish a shared identity with other group members.

• Receive social support and encouragement to take risks.

Challenges in Organizing Groupwork

There are some common issues that may arise when working in a group; These issues are as follows:

1. Poor communication

• Making assumptions

• Misinterpreting what is being discussed

• Not understanding what they need to do

• Working on the wrong task

• Failing to work well together

2. Personal issues

3. Unequal contribution of tasks

How can a teacher ensure that all students of a group are held accountable?

• Use peer evaluation

• Grade students on both individual participations.

• Assign specific roles to students in each group to structure their role and participation

• Use a team contract to establish roles and expectations

• Teach students how to give feedback to each other

(e) Project work

Project work: Is an activity that provides a learning experience in which students have the opportunity to synthesize knowledge from various areas of learning and apply it critically and creatively to real live situations. Working in groups, students enhance their knowledge and gain important skills to prepare them for future learning and challenges.

Learning Outcomes (Benefits)

The key focus and desired outcomes for project work are:

Communication: Students can express their ideas clearly and effectively both verbally and in written form.

Collaboration: Students can work as a team to achieve common goals.

Knowledge application: Students are able to make links across different areas of knowledge and to generate, develop and evaluate ideas and information related to the project.

Independent learning: Students are able to learn on their own, reflect on their learning and improve upon it.

(f) Field work/field trip

1. Fieldwork: Is the process of observing and collecting data about people, cultures and natural environment. Fieldwork is conducted in the wild of our everyday surroundings rather than in the semi-controlled environment of a lab or classroom.

2.Is one of those activity-oriented methods, which engage the pupils to learn in groups as well as independently. There are two types of field work, these are;

The structured type where the students are made aware of what tasks they are going to perform and the unstructured type where they only have an idea of where they are visiting and would study whatever they wish in any way they deem fit.

Types of fieldwork

There are three types of field work, these are;

1. Pre-fieldwork activities

The teacher makes the necessary arrangements and thorough preparations before students step out of the classroom. this involves pre-field trip activities. The teacher must visit the chosen site to familiarize himself with the area in order to advice on what students may study there. not forgetting procedures to follow when sending pupils outside the classroom. i.e, inform the headteacher, parents, District Director and obtain their permission.

2. Fieldwork Activities

Before leaving the school for the field, take headcount preferably through the groups formed. ask pupils to check that all required materials have been collected. in the field you must specified what should be assembly spot. this is where all students will report before entering or leaving the field. There should be another headcount. You also have to specify the time assigned for the fieldwork tasks and when they must reassemble again. You have to keep eyes on the groups by supervising or offering supervisions. Take another headcount before you return to school.

3. Post-fieldwork Activities

From the field, students may get into the groups or after some days to plan how the data collected in the field should be organized and presented. The planning session is presided over by the leader as individual students contribute through discussion to formulate the plan. Each group should be disposed to accepting the criticism levelled against it by the other groups. However, the group can defend what it thinks is right.

There are several field work methods that are used. Few of them are.

1. Observational methods: The observational method is viewed as the least invasive method where the anthropologist minimally integrates themselves into the society they are studying and gathers data through verbal communication while attempting to remain non-intrusive of the culture. This group of methods focuses on community interaction through language. It usually entails many open-ended interviews with participates who are members of a group being studied.

2. Participant observation: Is a method for anthropological Fieldwork, used to collect data such that the anthropologist must create an intimate relationship between themselves and the culture studied. This method requires that an anthropologist participate in a social event that is part of a specific culture.

3. Non-participant observation: Non-participant observation is the anthropological method of collecting data by entering within a community but with limited interaction with the people within the culture. The non-participant observation, although effective in providing some research, has limitations. One being, the observer affects. This is causes by the presence of the researcher having an influence over the participants’ actions. The researcher may use systematic approaches of field notes, sampling and data to ensure and increase comfortable interactions.

4. Comparative method: Comparative method has been a way to allow a systematic comparison of information and data from multiple sources. It is a common approach for testing multiple hypotheses on subject including co-evolution of cultures, the adaptation of cultural practices to the environment and kinship terms in local languages from around the world.

5. Triangulation Method: Triangulation method is the “combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon. It is used to investigate a single topic through individual perspectives or multiple methodologies.

It is usually the preferred way to research because it can confine all methods of researching to get the best results. It uses qualitative and quantitative practices together. The qualitative practice gives the triangulation method its inquiry results. The quantitative practice gives it the validation results.

6. Inter-subjectivity: Inter-subjectivity is the realization that knowledge about other people emerges out of people’s relationships with and perceptions of each other. The concept was first introduced by the principal founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, and creates a “theoretical frame for thinking about the ways in which humans interprets, organize and reproduce particular forms of social life and social cognition.”

The benefits of field work

1. It promotes a conceptual understanding of concepts by bridging the gap between the classroom and the real world.

2. It helps learn to appreciate the world, we live in as we see and investigate it through the eyes of the organisms being studied.

3. It develops in students, skills that will enable them to respond appropriately to the needs of clients.

4. Allows students to make their own observations, order their experiences, make decisions and set their own priorities as to what to focus on and what to ignore, towards becoming autonomous, self-directed learners.

5. It enhance co-operative learning.

6. The group work promotes tolerance in students.

Disadvantages of fieldwork

The weaknesses of fieldwork include the following;

• Documenting, observations may be more challenging than with other methods.

• It may be emotionally taxing.

• It may lack breadth, gathering very detailed information, means being unable to gather data from a very large number of people or groups.

• Many teachers lack the skills to organize fieldwork.

• Many people, more especially parents think it exposes students to many hazards.

• It is usually costly to be undertaken more especially when the process for the study is far away from the school.

(g) Demonstration: Demonstration method as the name implies, the teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done while the students become observers.

The demonstrator is knowledgeable in preparing the apparatus needed according to the steps to be followed.

The rest of the class becomes focused on the activity and concentration on the subject is assured.

Advantages of demonstration method of teaching

• This strategy improves the understanding of complex skills and principles.

• Students can pay their attention and follow along with the learning process.

• Knowledge becomes permanent because this method requires different human senses

• The psychomotor objective is easily achieved through this method.

• Students are motivated to study and gain necessary skills

• No time is wasted because students see the process live and understand how to apply theoretical knowledge practically.

Disadvantages

• Students are not allowed to ask question or start discussions during the demonstration.

• Only technical and training skills can be taught this way.

• This method requires a significant effort from the teacher.

• The method is limited to particular teaching situations only.

• Lack of equipment making the method very difficult to use.

(h) Dramatization

As Demircioglu (2010) believes, in this method, the learner is both participant and observer, playing a role while interacting with others in role. What is most important is that students are practically engaged in creating drama.

Advantages of Dramatization

• It is very useful in teaching literary texts as it helps analyzing plot, character and style.

• It is student-centered and students learn inductively

• The class is not monotone.

• It provides situations for reading and writing.

• Communication skills are emphasized.

• It makes the student-student and student-teacher relationship stronger and breaks down the barriers between them so they come closer.

Disadvantages of Dramatization

• Time consuming

• Students may not want to participate acting all the time

• Hard to control student since they can have too much fun.

• Not suitable for very crowded classrooms since it may get hard to monitor.

• Activities may not be suitable to all the class.

(i) Problem-solving

In problem-solving method, we learn by working on problems. This enables the students to learn new knowledge by facing the problems to be solved. The students are expected to observe, understand, analyze, interpret find solutions and problem application that led to a holistic understanding of the concept. Problem solving is a planned attack on difficulty for finding out satisfactory solution (M.N singh and S.B Mahes-wary).

By Aggarwal (1982) define problem solving as "a planned attack upon a difficulty...for the purpose of finding a solution.

Characteristics of problem-solving method

In order to be effective at problem solving you need some key skills, which include:

Creativity: Problems are usually solved either intuitively or systematically. Intuition is used when no new knowledge is needed. You know enough to be able to make a quick decision and solve the problem, more complex problems that have not experienced before will likely require a more systematic and logical approach to solve and for these you will need to use creative thinking.

Researching skills; Defining and solving problems often requires you to do some research. This may be a simple Google search or a more rigorous research project.

Team working: Many problems are best defined and solved with the input of other people. Team working may sound like a “work thing” but it is just as important at home and school as well us in the workplace.

Emotional Intelligence: It is worth considering the impact that a problem and /or its solution has on you and other people. Emotional intelligence, the ability to recognize the emotions of yourself and others will help guide you to an appropriate solution.

Decision making: Problem solving and decision making are closely related skills and making a decision is an important part of the problem-solving process as you will often be faced with various options and alternatives.

Advantages of problem-solving method

• It provides the active participation of the students in teaching and learning activity.

• It habituates student to study regularly and organized

• It provides students to gain scientific view and thinking

• It makes students to be interested in learning.

• It helps to improve the sense of responsibility of students.

• It provides students to face the problems boldly and to deal with it in a scientific approach.

Disadvantages

• Potentially poorer performance on test

• Students unpreparedness

• Tteacher unpreparedness

• Time consuming assessment

• Varying degrees of Relevancy and Applicability

The Concept Collaborative Learning

The “collaborative learning” is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort by students or students and teachers together. Usually, students are working in groups of two or more mutually searching for understanding, solution or meaning, or creating a product.

Characteristics of Collaborative Learning

• Responsibility for each other.

• Positive interdependence.

• Individual accountability.

• Social skills taught and reinforced.

• Students are the primary resources.

• Shared leadership.

• Teach interacts.

• Effective group processing.

The Benefits of Collaborative Learning

Turns learning into a truly active process; the learner must organize their thoughts, present a cohensive argument to demonstrate their point, defend that point to their peers and convince others that their argument is correct.

Promotes learning from others view points; Learners benefit from hearing diverse viewpoints. Studies show that when a person is exposed to diverse viewpoints, especially from people with varied backgrounds, they learn more.

Teachers learn how to think critically and quickly; the learner must quickly synthesize responses and if they find that their argument is lacking, adjust their ideas on the fly. Individuals learn how to think critically and quickly, while in taking new information and adjusting their own viewpoint as new ideas are introduced.

Promotes listening to criticism and advice; The learner will also listen to others talking through their ideas, offering their thoughts for or against their peers’ arguments. This dynamic approach means that learners gain a more full understanding of the topic as they have to consider it from all angles.

Improves cooperation: When given a specific goal, learners are more likely to engage in thoughtful discussion with each letter, improving both their understanding of the subject and their esteem for each other.

Improves knowledge acquisition and retentions, the process of collaborative learning allows participants to achieve higher levels of thought and the information is retained. Much longer them when learned in a non-collaborative setting.

It also promotes leadership skills among the teams/student’s which go a long way to develop in them high-level skills.

NB. State any 5 disadvantages of collaborative learning approach

What is Socio-Emotional Development?

Socio-Emotional development includes the ability to initiate and maintain secure relationships. During this development a child learns how to approach other children, how to negotiate issues, how to take turns and how to communicate effectively.

Theories of social Development

There are three theories of social development and these are the biological, social learning and psychoanalytic theories of personality and effective development.

Biological Theory

The biological approach holds that we inherit certain traits or temperaments from our parents. These temperaments describe certain predictable patterns of behavior styles that we display in the presence of certain people, places and events. (Carey cited in Bee, 1995). One such temperament as “activity level” some individuals can be described as being energetic, up-tempo, vigorous and having stamina and endurance, while others are low-key, laid-back and lethargic. One’s activity level can be traced to basic physiological processes, which are largely inherited (Buss and Plomin cited in Bee, 1995).

The Social Learning Theory: The basic assumption underlying social learning theory is that children learn and develop cognitively and affectively by observing others. Social learning theory can be treated as a developmental theory because it views cognitive and affective development as dependent on the cumulative effects of three important events;

• Maturation of the child’s increasing perceptual and physical abilities.

• Exposure to the increasingly complex verbal and physical behavior of models (parents, siblings, friends, teachers).

• An increasing ability to attend, recall imitate and motivated.

According to Bandura cited in Seifert and Horfnurg (1987). Children yearn social skills through a fundamental development process called modeling. Modeling involves being attentive to remembering, imitating and being rewarded by people, television, movies, books and magazines.

Bandura believes that the important development tasks that a child must master from infancy to adolescence are acquired through the social learning process. According to this theory, as children observe people and attend to the media, they are learning how to establish relationships, get along with others, acquire appropriate sex roles and behave morally and ethnically. Along with learning these behaviours, they are learning important ideas, expectations, internal standards which Bandura refers to as perceived self-efficacy.

The Psychoanalytic Approach

The psychoanalytic approach to personal-social development shares some characteristics with the biological and social learning approaches. Like biological theory this approach emphasizes that children are born with certain instinctual tendencies or derives. For Erikson, the genetic tendency that is most important for understanding personal-social development is the drive for identity.

Like social learning theory, Erikson’s theory emphasizes the role played by the environment (particularly child-rearing processes) as it interacts win an innate drive for identity. (Read on Erikson’s theory for more Information)

Physical Development

Physical development refers to the body’s biological development including the development of the brain, motor skills and coordination. These physical changes influence students learning, thinking and performance. For example, learning to read involves biological development as well as cognitive development

Leaner	General characteristics	Teaching strategies
INFANCY-TODDLER-HOOD; Approximate age: Birth-2years	Dependent on environment	Orient teaching to caregiver. Use repletion and imitation of information
EARLY CHILDHOOD Approximate age: 3-5years	Egocentric	Use calm, warm approach. Build trust
MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD: Approximate age 6-11years	More realistic and objective	Encourage independence and active participation, logical explanation.
ADOLESCENCE Approximate age 12-19 years	Abstract, hypothetical thinking. Can build on past learning	Establish trust and authenticity. Know their agenda.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD: Approximate age 20-40 years	Autonomous directed	Use problem centered focus: Draw on meaningful experiences.
MIDDLE-AGED ADULTHOOD: Approximate age 41-64	Sense of self well develop. At peak in career.	Focus on maintaining independence and establishing normal life pattern.
OLDER ADULTHOOD Approximate age 64 and over	Cognitive changes. Decreased ability to think abstractly, process information	Use concrete examples. Build on past life experiences

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development which is also known as intellectual or mental development refers to the improvement which occurs in the thinking process of the individual as he/she moves from one stage to another. According to piaget, there are four (4) main stages that an individual passes through in terms of cognitive development.

There stages are:

• The sensory-motor stage (Birth-2years).

• The pre-operational stage (2-7years).

• The concrete operational stage (7-11 years)

• The formal operational stage (over 11years).

Characteristics of sensory-motor stage

• They learn to discover the world around them using their senses touch, sight, hearing etc and motor activities:

• Their actions are involuntary in native. eg. The suckling refluxes

• They realize the concept of causality

• From birth -2years.

Characteristics of pre-operational stage (2 to 7years)

• It starts from 2-7years

• They begin to use symbols (such as language)

• They cannot tear something apart and put it together again

• They cannot return to the beginning of a thought sequence.

• They are considered to be egocentric or self-centered.

• They cannot conserve, seriate or reverse actions or information.

Characteristics of concrete operational stage (7-11years)

• It starts from 7-11years

• They operate on the environment intellectually

• Their thought and understanding improves significantly.

• They are able to learn mental operations such as addition, substation etc.

Characteristics of Formal Operational stage (over 11years)

• They begin to understand abstract ideas.

• They are able to make concrete references.

• It starts from 11years and above.

• Their reasoning is similar to that of an adult.

Educational implications of Piaget’s theory of cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has a number of important implications that can be derived from it;

A child’s level of development should be taken into consideration when deciding on which teaching methods to use and what information to impart in class. This is important because children cannot perform activities that are above the stage at which they are functioning.

1. Children should be made to take active part in lesson. This is because the child’s natural way of learning is through activity.

2. Provision should be made for relating learning to real concrete objects and experience, particularly before the formal operational stage. This is because children at that stage cannot reason at the abstract level the teacher should therefore use teaching/learning materials and create a rich classroom environment.

3. There is the need to provide for social interaction in the classroom. Through social interaction, the child is made aware of and appreciates the ideas and opinions of his peers and adults. For example, instructional methods should provide for learner-learner, as well as teacher learner interaction.

4. There is the need to employ questioning and testing in the teaching and learning process to ascertain whether a child has acquired certain abilities or concepts.

5. The teacher should acknowledge and respect individual differences in children. Thus, in teaching, the teacher should make room for individual differences since children do not attain the same level of cognitive development at the same time.

Group Assignment

State any 5 conditions that support play for children with special needs

Co-operative Learning

Co-operative learning is the process of breaking a classroom of students into small groups so they can discover a new concept together and help each other learn.

The purposes of Co-operative Learning

• Is to make each member a stronger individual in his or her right.

• They learn together so that they can subsequently perform higher as individual.

• It also promotes interaction, preferably face-to-face.

• It promotes leadership qualities among the students.

Characteristic of Cooperative Learning

• Students work together on common tasks or learning activities that are best handled through group work.

• Students work together in small groups containing two or five members.

• Students use co-operative, pro-social behavior to accomplish their cannon tasks or learning activities.

• Individual accountability

• Support division of labour

• Students are positively interdependent.

The Benefits of Co-operative Learning

• It ensures attention of the students through active participation.

• Adding meaning and relevance to the material.

• Enabling students to learn from “modeling” or through observation of others.

• Students of all ability levels show higher academic achievement when taught using cooperative learning, techniques.

• Reinforces social skills.

• Boost pupils' self-esteem.

• Encouraging student participation through expectation of rewards.

Assignment

State and explain any 5 disadvantages of cooperative learning.

Inquiry Design Model (IDM)

The Inquiry Design Model (IDM is a distinctive approach to creating curriculum and instructional materials that honors teacher’s knowledge and expertise, avoids over prescription and focuses on the main elements of the instructional design process as envisioned in the Inquiry Arc of the college.

UNIT FOUR

Questioning

Questioning is a major form of human thought and interpersonal communication. It involves employing a series of questions to explore an issue, an idea or something intriguing.

Questioning is the process of forming and wielding that serves to develop answers and insight.

Meaning of Question

Questions are therefore statements for which a reply is expected or needed.

Types of questions

These are the following types of questions we asked during teaching and learning.

1. Closed questions (aka the ‘polar’ question):- Close or ‘polar’ questions generally invite a one-word answer, such as ‘yes’ or ‘no’. They could also include answers to factual or multiple-choice questions, such as ‘what’ is your name?

2. Open questions: Open-ended questions require a little more thought and generally encourage wider discussion and elaboration. They cannot be answered with a simple yes or no response. For example: ‘what do you think of your boss?

3. Probing questions: These questions are useful for gaining clarification and encouraging others to tell you more information about a subject. Probing questions are usually a series of questions that dig deeper and provide a fuller picture. For example, “when do you need the finished product?

4. Rhetorical questions: They are simply statements phrased as questions to make the conservation more engaging for the listener, who is drawn into agreeing with you. For example: “Do you know God”. Rhetorical questions are often used by coaches or public speakers for effect to get the audience thinking and agreeing.

5. Recall and process questions:- Recall questions require the recipient to remember a fact. For example: ‘What is 7x7? And ‘where did you put your books:? Process question, on the other hand, require the respondent to add their own opinion to their answer. These types of question can be used to test the respondent’s depth of knowledge about a particular topic. For example, ‘what are the advantages of asking a closed question?

Classification of questions

Questions can be classified into;

1. Cognitive and affective domains

2. Narrow and broad questions

3. Convergent and divergent questions

4. Mental operation questions.

NB Read further on the above classification of questions

Uses of question

The importance of questioning in the classroom are as follows:

• Give immediate feedback on pupils’ understanding, which can then be used by the teacher to modify the teaching

• Help pupils to develop their thinking from the lower order concrete and factual recall type to the laugher order analytical and evaluative with promote deeper understanding.

• Prompt pupils to inspect their existing knowledge and experience to create new understandings.

• Focus pupils on the key issues and enable teachers and pupils to see progress over time.

• To develops interest and motivate students to become active in class.

Talk for learning approached in teaching

Talk for learning involves planning lessons so that students can talk more and learn more in a way that makes connections with their prior experience.

Examples of talk for learning Approaches includes; Initiating, building, managing, structuring

Group Assignment

Briefly explain the following talks for learning

• Initiating

• Building

• Managing

• Structuring

UNIT FIVE

The Concept Instructional Multimedia Development

The instructional Multimedia; - It consists of instructional messages that contain words (such as printed or spoken text) and pictures (such as illustrations, diagrams, photos, animation or video). The rationale for multimedia instruction is that people can learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone and more also to support student learning of a concept.

The Advantages of using instructional multimedia in the classroom

• Using multimedia in the classroom brings in images, sounds and videos without leaving the room.

• Using a projector or individual computers gives students the opportunity to view information or materials up close.

• It makes learning easier because, simulations allow students to visualize real-life situation.

• It also increases the motivational level of the students as they see the relevance of skills.

Disadvantages

• Varying quality of student electronic devices can create inequity in projects and presentations.

• Students access to computers at home may also cause problems, which affects the practical practice of the students.

• Classroom management becomes increasingly difficult.

• Students who are not as proficient with technology may have to spend more time learning computer skills to access information than focusing on course materials.

• It requires electricity to run, which adds to the cost of its use.

Types of instructional multimedia

1. Visual media 2. Audio media 3. Audio-visual media

Individual Assignment

Explain the types of the instructional multimedia mentioned. and give 2 example each.

Barriers to developing Multimedia Resources

The barriers or challenges includes;

• Electrical resources

• Networking

• Application software systems

• Human resources

• Hardware system

• Risk management.

All of these above challenges have to be overcome so that multimedia-based learning service can be conducted properly.

NB. Explain any 4 of the above listed barriers/challenges to the development of the multimedia Resources.

Concept of learning refers to unit 1 for the full note.

Principles of learning

• The principles of learning include readiness, exercise, effect, primacy, Recency, intensity and freedom. Edward Thorndike developed the first three “laws of learning” Readiness, Exercise and effect our discussions would be focused on the three developed by Edward Thorndike.

Readiness: implies a degree of willingness and eagerness of an individual to learn something new. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn and they do not learn well if they see no reason for leaning. Since learning is an active process, the students must have adequate rest, health and physical comfort while learning.

Exercise: This principle states that those things that are most often repeated are the ones that are best remembered. Your students will learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback. Every time practice occurs, learning continues.

Effect: The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeding and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The learner will strive to continence learning as long as it provides a pleasant effect.

Positive reinforcement is more likely to lead to success and motivate the learner.

NB. Briefly, Explain the following principles of learning.

• Primacy

• Recency

• Intensity

• Freedom

Factors affecting learning

As you plan and carry out your teaching sessions, you should be aware of the factors that affect the learning process. These may be classified into four categories

• Physiological factors

• Psychological factors

• Environmental factors

• Teaching methodology

The physiological factors include how people feel, their physical health and their levels of fatigue at the time of learning, the quality of the food and drink they have consumed may affect the performance of the students negatively if care not taken.

Psychological factors, if you are anxious or worried you will not be able to learn very efficiently. Psychological factors such as mental ill-health and conflict all hamper learning. A related psychological factor is motivation, no learning can take place in the absence energize, select and direct positive behaviour.

Environmental factors: Learning is normally hampered by bad environmental conditions such as distraction, noise, poor illumination, bad ventilation, overcrowding and inconvenient seating arrangements. All these issues need to be considered for effective learning.

Teaching methodology: Teaching materials should be properly planned and organized and should suit the mental level of the students, if not properly handled it will affect the understanding level of the learner. And also, the strategy to use should also need to be looked for better learning.

Constructivist Theories

Constructivism is a theory in education that recognizes the learners’ understanding and knowledge based on their own experiences prior to entering school. It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well as ontology, politics and ethics. The origin of the theory is also linked to jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind, and that it does not have to match any real-world reality (Driscoll, 2000). Learners will be instantly trying to develop their own individual mental model of the real world from their perceptions of that world.

Constructivism is “an approach to learning that holds that people activity construct or make their own knowledge and that reality of the learner (Ellioth etal, 2000, p. 256).

Constructivist approaches to teaching

Constructivist learning theory underpins a variety of student-centered teaching methods and techniques which contrast with traditional education, where by knowledge is simply passively transmitted by teachers to students.

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

1. The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving environment where students become active participants in their own learning. From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor.

2. The teacher makes sure he/she understand the students’ pre-existing conceptions and guides the activity to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

Features of a Constructivist Learning Environment?

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching strategies.

• Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

• Teachers and students will share authority.

• The teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guides.

• Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Traditional classroom	Constructivist classroom
Strict adherence to a fixed curriculum is highly valued.	Pursuit of student questions and interest is valued.
Learning is based on repetition	Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows.
Teacher-centered	Student-centered
Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in authority	Teacher’s role is interacting rooted in negotiation.
Students work primarily alone (competitive).	Students work primarily in groups (cooperative).

Constructivist theory (strengths)

1. Constructivism promotes a sense of personal agency as students have ownership of their learning and assessment.

2. Teachers and students share knowledge and authority.

Limitations of the theory

1. It lack of structure. Some students require highly structured learning environments to be able to reach their potential.

2. It also removes grading in the traditional way and instead places more value on students evaluating their own progress which may lead to students falling behind, as without standardized grading teachers may not know which students are struggling.

How would the constructivist theory be applied in the classroom?

The democratic and interactive process of a constructivist classroom allows students to be active and autonomous learners. Using constructivist strategies, teachers are more effective. In other words, the teacher and the students share knowledge and thought together and the teacher act as facilitator in helping making the learning easy for students to understand.

Relevance of constructivist theories for multimedia use

Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes student agency through self-guided exploration, reflection and evaluation.

Its relevance are as follows

1. It makes students active

2.It promotes students’ agency

3. It develops advanced skills such as critical thinking, analysis, evaluation and creation.

4. It promotes diverse viewpoints

5. It encourages students to reflect, evaluate their work and identify intermediary skills to acquire based on their needs.

6. It reflects our modern world's vast access to content.

5 Ways to Employ Constructivist Activities

1. Ask students to construct their own definition

Provide materials they can use to build their definition, such as words and images that illustrate feelings, reactions and concepts.

2. Ask students to draw their own connections between concepts.

To help students build expensive mental models, prompt students with questions to help them think outside of the box. Define in advance how much details they should provide.

3. Ask students to analyze a complex issue by constructing a report.

Provide multiple sources, statistics, and graphics from which students can select in order to build a complete report.

4. Allow students to search the internet for source materials.

This freedom can help students develop research skills that will be important to their success after even they complete your course.

5. Encourage students to reflect on their progress and identify the skills they need to develop in order to improve.

Metacognition is an important skill in the classroom and in the workforce. and when we provide student with time and space to be aware of their own knowledge and their own thinking, student ownership increases.

UNIT SIX

Visual Design and Instructional Media Production

What is visual design?” Visual design aims to improve a design’s/product’s aesthetic appeal and usability with suitable images, typography, space, layout and colour. Visual design is about more than aesthetics. Designers place elements carefully to create interfaces that optimize user experience and drive conversion.

What is instructional media? Instructional media encompasses all the materials and physical means a teacher might use to implement instruction and facilitate students’ achievement of instructional objectives. This may include, computer labs, classroom technology, Blackboard, audio and video conferencing.

Basic Elements of visual design

These are some of the most common and fundamental elements and principles of visual design:

• Lines: (straight/curved/geometric/organic) use these to create divisions, textures and shapes.

• Shapes:- Use lines, different colors etc. to created enclosed/self-contained areas.

• Negative space/whitespace:- Use the black are around a “positive” shape to create a figure/ground effect or calm the design overall.

• Value:- Use this to set the relationship between lightness and darkness, typically through a light source to create shadows and highlights.

• Color:- Use this to set the theme/tone and attract attention.

• Volume:- Use this to show the rich fullness of all three defensives of elements on two-dimensional careens.

• Texture:- Use this to define an object’s surface.

Principles of Creating Visual Design

• Unity: Use this to establish harmony between page elements so they appear to belong together and users are not distracted by chaotic layouts

• Gestalt:- Use this principles of how people perceive objects to guide how users interpret your design.

• Hierarchy:- Use placement, front, etc to show importance.

• Balance:- Use this to distribute elements evenly

• Contrast:- Use differences in colour, etc. to accentuate elements.

• Scale: Use this to emphasize elements to establish importance or depth.

• Dominance: Use can object’s size, colour, etc. to make it stand out.

Principles in selecting instructional media

1. Principles of Appropriateness: Instructional media must be either basic or supplementary to the curriculum.

2. Principles of Authenticity: Instructional media must present accurate, up-t-date and dependable information.

3. Principles of cost: Substitutes must be considered first.

4. Principles of interest: Must stimulate curiosity or satisfy the learner’s need to know and it must have the power to motivate, encourage creativity and imaginative response among users.

5. Principle of Organization and Balance: Instructional media must be well organized and well balanced in content and its purpose must be clearly stated or perceived. There should be logical organization, clarity and accordance with the principles of learning such as reinforcement, transfer and application in the materials.

It must also catch attention or the interest of the learners and also must be appropriate to the intended level.

UNIT SEVEN

Models, material Development, Storage and Evaluation

What is model?- Model is a representation of structure in a physical system and or its properties. In general, a model is an informative representation of an object, person or system.

What is material Development?- Material Development is basically dealing with selection, adaptation and creation of teaching. (Nunan, 1991). In practice, it focused on evaluation, adaption of published materials.

What is Storage?

It refers to a physical device or component in a computing system that receives and retain information relating to application and users. Example of such media include magnetic disk, cards, tapes and drums etc.

What is Evaluation?

Is the collection of analysis and interpretation of information about any aspect of a program of education or training as part of a recognized process of judging its effectiveness, its efficiency and any other outcomes it may have.

Ways of developing learning materials (using low/no cost resources).

DEFINITION OF NO COST/LOW COST MATERIALS.

• Low cost, no cost materials are the teaching aids which require no cost or available cheaply and developed by locally available resources and expedite the process of learning in the classroom.

• Low cost no cost materials are developed from the waste and the teachers in making the teaching interesting and concrete.

Importance of Low cost No cost materials

• Low-cost teaching aids can be used in nursery, primary, secondary etc.

• Low-cost teaching aids con be used for supplementary and illustrative education in the science as well as the humanities. However, they are most suitable for subjects like science, geography, mathematics and art and crafts.

Criteria for selecting materials

• Availability: One of the baseline requirements for any materials is consistently reliable availability to use at any point in time.

• Cost requirements: The cost to form a component, in order words the cost of the to be used for the teaching and learning should be looked at.

• The age of the students.

• Sustainability of the material

• Durability

Factors contributing to ineffective materials preparation

Lack of supply of materials: This factor seems to be the handicap which most educational institutions are unable to acquire relevant teaching equipment and materials. In line with this, students and teachers will lack on the opportunity to learn and use new techniques in the field.

Lack of Funds: There are sophisticated teaching aids that can make learning easier and faster such as computer-aided program but lack of funds has effects on its importation and use in schools.

Poor handling of materials: Materials available for the effective instructional delivery are poorly manhandled by both the teachers and some school authority.

Poor condition: The few institutions indicates the availability of these materials but were rather in poor condition.

Understanding: If the student did not understand the materials, frustration sets in and making it more difficult. The teacher should know the materials, if it is suited on the level of understanding of the students.

Non-availability of resource room: Schools are affected by, non-availability of resource room for the proper keeping of both the locally manufactured and the commercially purchased teaching aids thereby limiting its use as at the time needed.

Teachers’ Knowledge: This has a great impact on the effective application of teaching aids, this is because the teacher uses need to understand the sequential presentation of the instructional gadgets so as to suit the interests of the learners and its appropriateness with the instructional tasks.

Student population: Part of the application of teaching aids process is the target population for whom the materials are to be used and the setting or vicinity where the learning should take place.

Adaptive and Assistive Technology for SEN (People with special needs)

Assistive and Adaptive Technologies can help some people with disabilities’ work around their limitations. Although the terms are often used interchangeably, there is a slight difference in the definitions of assistive technology and adaptive technology.

Assistive Technology: Is any term, system, or product used to improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Assistive technology can be bought off-the-shelf, modified or custom-made.

Adaptive Technology: Is a subcategory of assistive technology; it refers to some-thing specifically designed for people with disabilities.

Types of Assistive/Adaptive Technology

There are many kinds of assistive/adaptive technology that address the different needs of people with disabilities. These includes;

Mobility aids: These include walkers, wheelchairs and other items that can help people go-around.

Augmentative and Assistive Communication Systems (AACs): These are used by people who have difficulty communicating with unassisted speech. A very famous example of an AACs is the communication system used by physicist.

Technologies for the visually impaired: These include Braille printers, screen readers, computer magnification programs and other devices.

Technologies for the hearing impaired: These include hearing aids, cochlear implants, teletype phones etc.

Technologies for feeding issues: These include curved utensils designed for people with limited dexterity, dishes that stick to the table to minimize spills, ergonomic bottle openers.

Vehicular modifications: These include adaptive steering systems, wheelchair ramps and other features that help people with disabilities to drive or ride in cars.

Home modifications: These include things like handrails near the toilet, no-slip mats and voice command system.

Advantages of assistive technology for SEN

The assistive technology devices can help people with disabilities to.

1. Have greater control over their own lives

2. Participate in and contribute more fully in activities in their homes, schools and work environment and in their communities.

3. Interact to a greater extent with people who do not have disabilities.

4. Students are able to achieve academic standards.

5. Creates awareness: Assistive technology helps creates awareness among the people and help make the lives of the people living with disability easier.

6. It builds social bridges: Assistive technology helps build social bridges among students.

7. Students are given the opportunity to socialize with more students: It is easier for students to socialize with more students. Thanks to assistive technology, students those who had a problem with hearing, they can now be able to hear better and so on.

8. It is an ideal way to each technology in an understanding way: Assistive technology is an ideal way to teaching technology in a way that everyone can understands

Disadvantages of Assistive technology for SEN

There are also disadvantage of assistive technology which cannot be ignored. Some of the problems mentioned below:

1. Privacy: Some of the assistive technology degrades the privacy of the individual. It allows the helper to constantly get personal information about the individual with disability.

2. Human contact: Human contact towards the individual might decrease as there will be less need of direct physical assistance. This could lead to the person being more socially isolated which can be bad for his emotional health.

3. Regression: As a result of assistive technology, people with disability become able to do some task. An individual might rely excessively on the technology and do not attempt to learn ways to cope with their disabilities. A disabled person can actually regress when they rely too much on the assistive technology and do not put effort by themselves.

4. Complexity: Some cases of assistive technology are very complex and hard to use. It affects the individual psychologically and increase the frustration further more.

5. It is time consuming: To be able to use the technologies properly, training has to take place which is very time consuming.

6. Assistive technologies are very costly, because the cost many schools do not have the technologies to use to help people with disabilities.

7. It may be subjected to abuse: By having many different assistive technologies, some students may abuse the use of technology by using technologies they do not necessarily need.

8. Training is required: Teachers and students are required to be trained in the usage of assistive technology. This means that a lot of investment has to be put into assistive technology for it to make sense.

9. It is cumbersome: Assistive technology is sometimes cumbersome to use if someone is not accustomed to it.

10. Lack space efficiency: There is a lot of equipment that is required in assistive technology and this may be a problem in terms of space storage

Ways in which resources can be classified and stored

There are various ways that resources can be classified and stored.

The purpose of classifying items before storing them is to mark the information so it can be retrieved quickly and efficiently.

Resources can be classified in the following ways based on their characteristics, relevance, ability to aid development for specific learners ie. The specific learning styles that it aids or skills that it helps develop such as creativity and reasoning other classifications include.

• Projected or non-projected

• Audio, visual or a combination of both

• Kinesthetic/observational.

Resources can be stored in the following ways

Traditional hard/physical resources:- This however could potentially require a large amount of physical space to store it. It can be stored in a centralized place so that everyone can access it or areas where it is most frequently used. Access can be restricted if not keep at the right place for each and every one to use.

Information technology resources: Less space is required and access can be anywhere if using a cloud bused or internet- based storage system. Access can be controlled through password protected systems.

What is gender audit?

A gender audit is a tool to assess and check the institutionalization of gender equality into organizations, including in their policies, programmes, projects and provision of services, structures, proceedings and budgets.

Purposes of Gender Audit

Gender audit helps organizations/institutions identify and understand gender patterns within their composition, structures, processes, organizational culture and management of human resources and in the design and delivery of policies and services.

They also help assess the impact of organizational performance and its management on gender equality within the organization/institution.

Gender Audits also establish a baseline against which progress can be measured overtime, identifying critical gender gaps and challenges and making recommendation of how they can be addresses through improvements and innovations.

Although there is no standard approach for carrying out a gender audit, international organizations use two main approaches;

• Participatory gender Audit.

• The gender integration framework

UNIT EIGHT

The Concept of Inclusive

Inclusion: Is an educational practice whereby students with special needs are fully integrated into the general education classroom at a school. You may have heard the term “mainstreaming” which is defied by a special needs child who visits the general class for certain subjects, but is not fully integrated. That is the main difference between inclusion and mainstreaming. Inclusion philosophy rests on the idea that every individual, regardless of his/her disabilities has the right to be incorporated fully into the fabric of society.

Advantages of inclusion

Tolerance and celebration of diversity: Other students will learn children with Down Syndrome and it will change them for the better. The children with Down syndrome learn to deal with the world around them.

Traditional students learn how to mentor and help others who are impaired: People should help each other and it gives us a sense of accomplishment married with a sense of hope. It made us better people and also makes students better people.

Special needs children learn effective social behaviours modeled through the other children: Isolating children in the hopes that we will be able to protect them from getting hurt only makes it hurt worse when they are exposed to painful situations. Let them learn how to deal by watching others and testing the waters.

Higher expectations on the student: People rise to the occasion, so students do this as well. As they are battling delays in learning and other disadvantages, with determination they may overcome many of life” challenging moments.

Less isolation: Given the opportunity to see more, students literally open their minds to more Plan and simple.

Greater access to teachers’ resources:- Student needs teachers so why not give students who struggle access to more teachers. The same students become adults who need to function and interact with this world so they need access to the same information anyone else would have.

Barriers to Inclusive environment

Attitudes:- In a school system where there is not a lot of understanding and knowledge regarding Down Syndrome, teachers may fear and resist change.

Administration:- If administrators do not understand the philosophy of inclusion or the capabilities of children with Down Syndrome, it may be difficult to get the structure and procedure in place for an inclusive classroom.

Architectural issues:- Does the school have handicap access in the whole school? What about other features like evevators or Braille? May schools have one area that is handicap accessible but the whole school is not designed for someone with disabilities.

Characteristics of inclusive Education

• Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class and the school community.

• No student is excluded based on type or degree of disability

• All Students receive an education that addresses their individual needs.

• There is school based planning, problem-solving and ownership of all students and programs.

• Students with disabilities attend their neighborhood schools or the school they would attend if they were not disabled.

Concept of Multi-grade Teaching

Multi-grade, define as teaching two or more age groups or grades together in the same classroom by the same teacher (NCED, 2003). The term “multi-grade teaching” generally refers to a teaching situation where a single teacher has to take responsibility for teaching pupils across more than one curriculum grade within a time table period. Schools with multi-grade classes are referred to as multi-grade schools.

Characteristics of multi-grade

• It is combination class grouping in a school with one, two to three classrooms.

• It involves a single teacher.

• Should be well organized

• Resourceful

• Prior successful experience at the grade level to be taught.

• Self-directed

Factors that would lead to the need for Multi-Grade Teaching

1. Teacher supply

2. Population size and type

3. Cultural factors

4. Facilities

5. Mixed abilities

NB: Read on the above factors for more information.

Challenges for teaching inclusive Education/challenges in special needs

The following are some of the challenges;

• Lack of trained teachers

• Large class size.

• Lack of child-centered are relevant curriculum

• Lack of proper infrastructure

• Lack of access to mainstream

• Lack of participatory activities.

• Shortage of teacher aides.

• Educating students with less severe disabilities

• Teaching composition to students individualized lesson plans

• Coordinating therapies.

NB. Read on the above challenges listed for more information and understanding.

Effective strategies for managing multi-grade classrooms

According to Collingwood’s book must-class teaching in primary schools, a handbook that was published in 1991 by the UNESCO office for the pacific states, there are three main methods to use for teaching in multi-grade classrooms, namely.

• Whole class Teaching

• Group Teaching.

• Self-directed learning.

These three basic teaching strategies are indicative as well as characteristic for the multigame setting and can be used in combination among them or separately depending on the situation. Thus, it is equally important for the teacher not only to comprehend and know how to implement a strategy but also to know when to use these teaching methods or what strategy combination to choose.

NB. Briefly, explain the three methods or strategies in relation to multi-grade.

The concept classroom management

Classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that tractors use to keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive on task and academically productive deering a class. When classroom-management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviours that impede learning for both individual students and groups of students while maximizing the behaviours that facilitate or enhance learning.

Five Principles of outstanding Classroom Management

The principles are as follows;

1. Take care of yourself to take care of your students: To learn effectively the students need a you, healthy, so get enough sleep, eat healthy food and take steps to attend to your own well-being.

2. Focus on Building Relationships: Building healthy student-teacher relation-ship is essential to a thriving classroom culture and even sets the stage for academic success.

3. Set Rules, Boundaries and expectations: Students need some basic structure and consistency to feel safe and to focus. As a teacher you need to do it early. Establish the code of conduct early in the year and be sure that everyone including you, the teacher makes an effort to stay true to it. Also let them know your expectations as well as theirs.

4. Take strength-Based Approach: Never forgetting to look beneath the surface of hehaviour, even when it is incensement. Find the root of the problem and help students to come out of the problem. Student wants to achieve success in their learning, try to encourage and help them to success.

5. Involve Parent and Guardians: All parents, guardians and care givers want to hear that you see the good in their child. A positive connection with home can often help in the classroom. This the teacher can do by sending home reports of both positive and negative behaviours.

Importance of a good classroom management

Effective classroom management paves the way for the teacher to engage the students in learning. The following are the importance;

1. Effective Teaching: Classroom management strategies help create an organized classroom environment that is conducive to teaching. Students know the expectations in different types of learning situations. For example, students would know that when working in small groups they talk in quiet voices and take turns taking. This behavior helps to control class effectively.

2. Efficient use of time: Taking time before school starts to create routines and procedures saves the teacher time in the long run. When the students know what to do, it become a natural part of the routine. You need not tell the students what to do during the course of teaching and learning.

3. Consistency: A teacher with strong classroom management skills creates consistency for his students. The students know what to expect every day when it comes to the routine activities. The students may fare better when you are gone if you have se expectations for everyday tasks. They know how the classroom runs so they are able to help the substitute run the classroom. For example, if the students know they are supposed to ender the room and start working on Education problem on the board, a substitute does not have to spend his time corralling the students or trying to keep them occupied while everyone arrives. You can also create consistency throughout the school by aligning your management strategies with the school-wide standards.

4. Fever Behaviour problems: The main goal of classroom management is to reduce misbehaviour in the classroom. Effective classroom management gives the students know what they need to do. The expectations for behaviors that are part of a classroom management plan give students boundaries as well as consequences.

Effective strategies for the Inclusive Classroom

Here are five strategies that have been successful for working with students in the inclusive classroom;

1. Get to know your students: With reference to a special need child, it will help the teacher in terms of placing the child in class for him/her to feel comfortable and can help explain a concept during collaborative time. Seats away from distractions such as windows or doors is quite helpful for students with attention issues.

2. Implement Universal Design for learning (UDL): Universal Design is so much than one of the hottest buzz-words circulating around education circles. It is an approach to curriculum planning and mapping that makes learning engaging and accessible to a wider range of learners with different strengths and needs. UDL builds on Howard Gardner’s theories of multiple intelligences in that it calls for teaching to utilize multiple modalities and for students or respond to learning with a variety of assessment tools.

Educators that recognize the unimportance of UDL realize that we all learn and express ourselves in different ways and that in order to assess skills we need to be allowed to use our strengths, while practicing our areas of need at the same time.

3. Create an inclusive Environment: When talking with students during class, communicate clearly starting on the first day of the term about what you expect to happen in the classroom, including your expectations for respectful and inclusive infractions.

4. Encourage a Growth Mindset: Forster a “growth mindset” by conveying the idea that intelligence is not a reflection of fixed natural abilities but can change and grow over time (Dweck, 2006). When talking with students about their performance in class or exams or assignments avoid describing such performance as a sign of natural ability (or lack of ability).

UNIT 9

The Concept of Planning

Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It is the first and foremost activity to achieve desired results. Planning is based on the theory of “thinking before acting”. Planning is an integral part of our life. We make plans in each and every step of life whether it be to go to school or to buy household goods during shopping.

According to Theo Haiman, “Planning is deciding in advance, what is to be done. According to M.E. Hurley, “Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done. It involves the selection of objectives, policies, procedures and programs from among alternatives.

The importance of planning and preparation in teaching

Here are several reasons that lesson planning is essential:

v It gets you prepared: Some material you might know like the back of your hand, while other material might be new to you or more complex, and therefore more challenging to deliver successfully. Planning helps you get up to speed so you are not figuring things out while trying to teach students.

v It boosts your confidence: Confidence in the classroom is largely about having good control. This will help to impact effective teaching and learning and making sure your learning objective is achieved.

v It solidifies you as a professional: When you are observed for performance evaluations, you will be graded on your effectiveness in the classroom. All these depend on the planning of your lesson.

v It makes sure lessons are meaningful: Arguably the most important reason to plan is that it ensures the students’ time in the classroom is worthwhile. The teacher in the classroom should tie all activities to specific learning objectives and connect the daily lessons to all long-term units. It is vital that everything flows together so that you can help the students achieve grade-level standards.

Who are diverse learners?

1. Learners with linguistical, socio-cultural and socio-economic positioning and identities that differ from what is considered mainstream in specific contexts.

2. Students from different language, literacy, ethnic, racial and cultural background.

3. Students who bring a broad array of learning styles, varying academic histories and needs, and may also have cultural and linguistic differences.

4. General education classrooms are populated with students who have different needs. Frequently, students with disabilities are taught in general education classrooms and can extend the diverse academic and social needs of learners.

Factors to consider in planning learning for diverse primary school learners in inclusive and multi-grade settings

The following factors should be considered:

v Learners’ learning styles

v Cultural background

v Socio-economic background

v The learning environment

7 creative ways to teach diverse learners

The seven things you can do to teach diverse learners are;

1. Make an IEP cheat sheet: Individualized education plans (IEP) are lengthy, detailed documents, that is developed for each public schools’ child who needs special education (disability) who is attending a primary or elementary education to help receives specialized instruction and related services.

2. Encourage active learning: For effective teaching of diverse learners, you need to incorporate active learning strategies to use to teach diverse learners:

v Group learning

v Case-based learning

v Group discussions

v One-minute papers and one-sentence summaries

v Demonstrations and memory matrixes

3. Embrace small group learning: Here learners may be divided into small groups of four, depending on the number of students you have in your class. Give them a task to perform in each group and making sure you go round to help them. Make sure you do a whole-class introductory lesson that served as a lead-in for what they would learn. This process will help all learners, especially diverse learners by addressing knowledge gaps and also promote collaboration and communication among students. It also gives more opportunities for feedback and it also encourages independent learning.

4. Group by learning style not ability: Grouping by ability is counterproductive. It makes things a little easier for the teacher. With view of this using mixed-ability groups can promote learning, especially when students get the opportunity to teach their peers. An extension of this is to place students who learn in similar ways together i.e. visual learners with visual learners, auditory with auditory etc. Doing so can make a huge difference during small-group instruction.

5. Promote project-based learning: While you are differentiating the teaching, consider project-based learning is not a summative assessment. It is a way of actually helping students understands what is being taught through hands-on methods. During PBL activities, children work together to solve real world problems by coming up with solutions together.

6. Incorporate ed-tech and adaptive learning tools: Another suggestion for finding creative ways to teach students is to incorporate ed-tech and adaptive learning tools. There is plenty of technology out there designed with certain types of students in mind; there is no need to reinvent the wheel. Instead by incorporating these tools. For example, using Book creator as an alternative assessment or Google keep for electronic note-taking and organization etc.

7. Provide alternative testing options: One final suggestion is to find alternative testing avenues for individual learners or the class as a whole. The fact that we traditionally test on paper does not mean that it is the only acceptable way. Instead, you should differentiate the approach by allowing students to answer orally, through drawings (pictures) and with the use of their notes. By doing this it will allow you, the teacher to evaluate the students better and improve your own teaching.

NOTE:

i. State any two purposes of IEP

ii. List any four components of IEP

Scheme of work: A scheme of work describes what a teacher needs to do daily, termly and yearly-within the classroom.

A scheme of work is more detailed than a syllabus. The following might be contained in a scheme of work;

- What is to be taught (topics and sub-topics)

- A description of how teaching should take place

- Activities pupils could be made to engage in

- Number and type of materials that would be needed

- Exercises to be completed

- Textbooks to use

You would notice from the kind of information provided in the scheme of work that if it is well done, you would have much less work in writing your lesson plans.

The structure of a scheme of work

TERM/WEEK/

EVALUATION REFERENCE

TOPIC

OBJECTIVES

ACTIVITIES/ MATERIALS

REMARKS

The important issues about the scheme of work

They are;

- The topic and the teaching support issues that follow it are for one week, but they could be extended to two or three weeks. For instance, if two weeks are required to teach pupils about ratio and proportions, this topic would be written down for week 1 and again for week 2.

- The sequence in which the topics are written is very important. Although the syllabus is the source of the topics, they may not necessarily be put in proper sequence. The sequence should be determined by the teacher who is the user of the syllabus.

- The time to be spent on each topic also needs to be carefully considered. You need to be flexible enough in allocating time.

- Ensure that the scheme of work is based on some advance preparation. In other words, it is not useful to copy down an earlier one without actually ensuring that the materials are accessible, or that the timing is appropriate.

- Submit the scheme to your head teacher/master for vetting.

- Finally, you need to update your scheme. Make corrections and adjustments. A scheme should be flexible.

Components of learning/lesson plan

The following are the components of learning/lesson plan;

- Lesson objectives

- Set induction/introduction

- Relevant previous knowledge

- Teaching and learning materials

- Teaching-learning activities

- Care-points

- The assessment items

NOTE:

1. a) Define the term lesson plan.

b) Scheme work

2. State and explain the components of learning/lesson plan.

Importance of learning/lesson plan

The issue of writing learning/lesson plan is so important that we still need to be sure that you would not joke with it. In order to ensure that you give it maximum attention we need to discuss its importance.

- Lesson plans enable the teacher to identify and gather materials required for teaching. This is because you have the opportunity to think of what you are going to do and therefore what materials you would use to do it.

- Lesson/learning plan enable the teacher to sequence what is to be taught. It provides you with the opportunity to determine which should follow and so on.

- The teacher becomes confident in presenting the lesson. Confidence is important in lesson delivery. You can only be confident when you know what you teach. So you need to read around the topics before coming to class.

- A well-prepared lesson or learning plan enables another teacher to take over the class in the absence of the regular teacher.

- Lesson or learning notes serves as a written record of work done by the teacher. Such a record has several uses. Officials of the education service can use it to assess the work of the teacher or even head teacher who is supposed to be vetting it.

- It makes the teacher read and consult some sources of information. Once you have to write down a lesson plan, especially when you know the head teacher and other people may have opportunity to look at it, you may work hard to find out more about lesson prepared.

Designing individual learning plans (ILPs)

Individual learning plan or (ILP) is a user (student) specific program or strategy of education or learning that takes into consideration the student’s strengths and weaknesses.

(ILP) presumes that the needs of individual students are different and thus must be differently addressed.

Emphasis on the student’s role in the learning experience has been shown in research to be crucial to a productive learning experience.

The individual learning plan can also be used by an individual on their own or as part of a community of interest, a team or an organization to manage learning over the course of their life.

Adopted by many institutes as a teaching methodology, ILP for a student is generated after interaction between the student and the teacher and is based upon assessment made therein.

Steps to developing/designing an individual learning plan

Here are the 5 steps to developing an individual learning plan.

- Develop learning goals: An individual learning plan may achieve one or several learning goals. Examples of such goals may be to develop or enhance capabilities in the current role or to plan for career advancement.

- Conduct a self-assessment: This is a stage where the employee not only learn to identify his or her strength and weaknesses but think ahead to a period of 3 to 5 years to assess whether they have the relevant skills required to progress from their current job position.

- Determine the learning styles: The purpose of training is to increase knowledge so that the employee will be well-equipped to do their job. However, it is important to bear in mind that everyone has different learning styles. Some of us are aural learners who learn best when physically listening to the content, hence traditional face sessions benefits them. Others can be visual learners who learn by looking at graphs, charts and information presented visually. This is also a group of learners who prefer to learn by doing, hence hands-on experiences while learning the new contents will be helpful for them.

- Identify learning activities to support the goals: At this stage, employees have to consider what action they will commit to attain the goals. Here are some activities to consider:

1. Books, industry magazines, journals

2. Mentors, coaches and one-to-one trainers

3. Seminars, conferences and formal training programmes

4. Committees or special work teams

- Put your plan into action: Review your individual learning plan with your manager/teacher for approval and to gather feedback on whether it is feasible. Once your manager gives you the go-ahead, get started and make adjustment along the way. Review your progress at certain intervals to ensure that learning is on track and celebrate successes too.

How to Design Basic Learning Plan

To design a basic learning plan, the following examples of format need to be followed:

- Goals/outcomes: Are the overall kinds of learning to be accomplished from having implemented the plan.

- Methods of learning: Are the activities that will have accomplished the associated goals/outcomes.

- Indicators of learning: Are the tangible results that will provide the evidence of having accomplished the associated goals/outcomes.

- How to monitor outgoing progress: Are the activities to ensure the ongoing monitoring or status of having done the methods and producing the indicators of learning.

- How to capture learning: Is the method to document the new knowledge, skills and abilities while having implemented the methods and achieved the associated goals/outcomes.

Importance of individual learning plans

- It helps students to secure their ownership in terms of planning their own learning pathway.

- They are also committed to participating in their chosen career.

- They can also be a way of encouraging learners to work towards achieving their goals.

- It also helps teachers to monitor the learning activities of the students.

Selection of teaching-learning materials (TLMs)

Instructional materials, also known as Teaching /Learning Materials are any collection of materials including animate and inanimate objects and human and non-human resources that a teacher may use in teaching and learning situations to help achieve desired learning objectives.

Uses of teaching and learning materials

- It enables the students to proceeds towards concrete learning.

- It helps the teacher to better interpreted and appreciate the concepts, contents as well as the subject-matter.

- It makes teaching and learning very easy for both the teacher and the learners.

- They save the teacher the trouble of providing lengthy verbal explanations.

- It provides opportunity for students to participate in the lesson effectively.

- It also enables students to communicate with each other during the course of teaching and learning.

Guidelines in selecting teaching and learning materials

- It should be age appropriate.

- Should also consider the ability level of the class/students.

- Should be diverse with respect to levels of difficulty.

- Should present a variety of points of view.

- Take into consideration the individual needs and learning styles.

Reference Materials

Adentwi, K.I (2005) Curriculum Development. An introduction, Kumasi; Wilas Press Ltd

Amoah S.A Laryea, P. & Amoako, B.M. (2016) Fundermentals of educational technology for effective teaching and learning. Winneba: University Press

Anderson, Lorin in; and Krathwoh 1, David R ends 2001. A Taxonomy for learning, Teaching, and Assessing; A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational objectives. New York; Longunan.

Bloom, Benjamin S. ed. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational objectives: The classification of Educational Goals; Hand book 1, cognitive Domaing New YorkDavid Mckay.

Farrant J.S (1982) Principles and practice of education. London, Longman.

Harrow, Anita J. 1972. A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for developing Behavioural objectives. New York; David Mckay.

Krathwohl, David R; Bloom, Benjamin S; and Masia, Bertram B. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational objectives: The classification of Educational Goals; Handbook II: The Affective Domain; New York: David Mckay.

Principles and methods of teaching in basic schools for UTTDBE programme (GES) for teacher education.

Sarfo S.K. (2008) Educational technology. Kumasi. Willas Press Ltd.

Tamekloe, E.K. Amedahe F.K. & Atta, E.T. (2005) Principles and practice of teaching. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.NOTES WILL SOON BE LOADED...

Differentiated Planning, Learning and Multimedia Development

COURSE OUTLINE

TABLE OF CONTENT

UNIT ONE

THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND CURRICULUM PLANNING

The Concept of Learning

Types of Learning

Principles of Reinforcement

Differentiated Learning

Learning styles

Learning strategies

Purpose of learning/Instructional strategies

Instructional/learning strategies

Nature of the Curriculum.

Characteristics of a Good Curriculum

The relationship between curriculum and syllabus

Curriculum Terminologies

Basic Components of Syllabus

UNIT TWO

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS FOR INCLUSIVE JHS SETTINGS

Taxonomies of Educational Objectives

Revision of the Taxonomy

UNIT THREE

Creative Approaches

The Benefits of Role-play in teaching

How to support children learning (Role-Play)

Importance of modeling in teaching

Experiential Learning Approach

Importance of Experiential learning

Examples of Experiential Learning are;

Types of group work Activities to engage students

The Benefits of Groupwork

Challenges in Organizing Groupwork

Learning Outcomes (Benefits)

Types of fieldwork

There are several field work methods that are used. Few of them are.

The benefits of field work

Disadvantages of fieldwork

Advantages of problem-solving method

Disadvantages

The Concept Collaborative Learning

UNIT FOUR

Questioning

Uses of question

UNIT FIVE

The Concept Instructional Multimedia Development

The Advantages of using instructional multimedia in the classroom

Disadvantages

Barriers to developing Multimedia Resources

UNIT SIX

Visual Design and Instructional Media Production

Principles in selecting instructional media

UNIT SEVEN

Models, material Development, Storage and Evaluation

Ways of developing learning materials (using low/no cost resources).

Adaptive and Assistive Technology for SEN (People with special needs)

Types of Assistive/Adaptive Technology

Ways in which resources can be classified and stored

UNIT EIGHT

The Concept of Inclusive

Characteristics of inclusive Education

Concept of Multi-grade Teaching

Factors that would lead to the need for Multi-Grade Teaching

Challenges for teaching inclusive Education/challenges in special needs

Effective strategies for managing multi-grade classrooms

The concept classroom management

Five Principles of outstanding Classroom Management

Importance of a good classroom management

Effective strategies for the Inclusive Classroom

Reference Materials

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