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ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN
CONTEMPORARY GHANA
Written by:
Dr. Iddrisu Bariham
Courage Jerry Worlanyo Mawutor
Peter Gyimah
Edited by
Cletus K. NgaasoTABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1: NATURAL RESOURCES
Section 1: Meaning and Characteristics of Natural resources
Section 2: Types and Importance of Natural Resources
Section 3: Land, water and air as Natural Resources
Section 4: Human Activities and their Impact on Biodiversity
Section 5: Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources in Ghana
Section 6: Strategies for Land and Water Resource Management
UNIT 2: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
Section 1: Meaning of Environmental Health and Sanitation
Section 2: Environmental related Diseases in Ghana
Section 3: Prevention of Environmental related Diseases
Section 4: Climate Change and its Impact
Section 5: Environmental Sustainability and the SDGs
Section 6: Teaching Environmental Health and Sanitation
UNIT 3: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POOR ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION
Section 1: Meaning, Types and Causes of Poor Environmental Sanitation
Section 2: Effects of Poor Environmental Sanitation
Section 3: Positive Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours
Section 4: Environmental Problems
Section 5: Causes and Effects of Environmental Problems
Section 6: Promoting Citizenship and Community Participation in Environmental Health and
Sanitation
UNIT 4: LEGISLATIONS ON SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Section 1: Legislation on Sanitation and Environmental health
Section 2: Gender Approaches and Waste Management
Section 3: Natural causes of Poor Environmental Sanitation
2Section 4: Ways of Ensuring Safe and Healthy Environment in Ghana
Section 5: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), its role in protecting the environment
Section 6: Teaching Environmental Safety and Health in basic schools
UNIT 5: ADOLESCENT REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND RIGHTS
Section 1: An overview of the concept Adolescents’ Health and “Reproductive Rights”
Section 2: Meaning and characteristics of adolescence and adolescent
Section 3: Changes associated with the adolescent developmental stages
Section 4: Why changes are Necessary in Adolescents
Section 5: Relevance of Reproductive Health Education
Section 6: Application of the knowledge gained to teach JHS Social Studies curriculum
UNIT 6: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION
Section 1: An overview of the Concepts Reproductive Health and “Reproductive Health Education”
Section 2: Nature, rationale, and objective of Reproductive Health Education
Section 3: Health challenges faced by adolescents and strategies to address them
Section 4: Relevance of Reproductive Health Education to students and Social Studies teachers
Section 5: Reproductive rights education
Section 6: Teaching concepts related to Reproductive Health in the basic school curriculum
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UNIT 1
NATURAL RESOURCES
Introduction
Ghana, a multicultural and multiethnic society is made of sixteen administrative regions. The
various regions, on the basis of the lands they occupy and the physical environment, possess
natural resources such as rivers, lakes, soils, forest, mineral resources, among others. It is on the
basis of the physical environment that the decisions on the location of the economic activities and
their distribution overtime are made. In this Unit, we shall examine the concept of natural resources
and how they can be effectively harnessed and utilized for sustainable development in Ghana. The
unit is divided into six sections which include the following:
Section 1: Meaning and Characteristics of Natural resources
Section 2: Types and Importance of Natural Resources
Section 3: Land, water and air as Natural Resources
Section 4: Human Activities and their Impact on Biodiversity
Section 5: Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources in Ghana
Section 6: Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation-Land and Water Resource Management
Unit Learning Outcomes and Learning Indicators
Unit Learning Outcome
Learning indicators
On successful completion of the course, student
teachers should be able to:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
concept of resources and how resources can be
sustainably utilized (NTS 1a, 2c,3a, b; NTEF 20-22)
1.1 Distinguish between renewable and
non-renewable resources
1.2 Discuss human activities that
negatively affect biodiversity
1.3 Explain how renewable and non
renewable resources can be sustainably
exploited
1.1 Meaning and Characteristics of
Natural resources
1.2 Types and Importance of Natural
Resources
1.3 Land, water and air as Natural
Resources
1.4 Human Activities and their Impact on
Biodiversity
1.5 Sustainable Utilization of Natural
Resources in Ghana5
1.6 Strategies for Biodiversity
Conservation-Land and Water
Resource Management
SECTION 1
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Introduction
Dear learner, you are welcome to the first section of this unit. This unit involves a study of natural
resources, with particular reference to their nature and spatial distribution. You will also be
expected to classify natural resources based on their origin, renewability or non-renewability and,
stage of development. The lesson will also require student-teachers to discuss natural resources in
the form of land, water and air. The goal is to equip student teachers with knowledge and skills to
implement Social Studies curriculum at the basic level.
Learning Indicators
By the time you finish studying this section you would be able to:
1. Explain the concept resources
2. Define the term natural resources
3. Outline the various characteristics of natural resources
An Overview of the Concept “Resources”
Resources refer to any form of material available to society, which is used in the production of
goods and service to meet the needs of man. In other words, resources are potential wealth or assets
available to an individual, a community or a nation that can be effectively used in the production
of goods and services for human consumption. Examples include: land, minerals, biodiversity,
sunlight, soil, water bodies, people, artifacts among others. Biodiversity denotes the number and
variety of different organisms and ecosystems in a certain area at a given time. Ghana is made up
of land area of 238,537 sq. km out of which about 1.8 million hectares is covered by forest. The
country has: minerals, water bodies, marine and coastal eco-systems, attractive sceneries and the
like. The development of a country depends among other things on the quantity and quality of the
available resources.
Types of Resources
Resources have been categorized differently by various people. However, the general consensus
is that, there are three main types of resources:
• Natural resources
• Human resources
• Cultural resources
Meaning of Natural Resources
Natural resources are free gift of nature. In other words, the term natural resource is used to cover
all products of the earth that supports human life. They consist of all materials provided by nature which is used in the production of goods and services to satisfy human needs. Examples include:
Water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, lagoons, seas, pound and so on; Mineral deposits: such
as gold, diamond, manganese, bauxite, crude oil and others; Biodiversity: examples include plants
and animals including wildlife and forest; Land: examples include highlands, lowlands and soil;
and Climatic elements such as sunshine, rainfall, temperature, humidity and the rest. To the
economist if a natural resource is not accessible due to its location for example, then it cannot be
considered as an economic natural resource. In contrast, Geographers perceived natural resources
differently. To them, all the free material gifts of nature within the limits of man’s activities are
natural resources (Ofosu-Kusi, 2006). Present interpretation of these limits extends to about 4
miles beneath the earth surface and 12 miles above it.
In other words, natural resources are natural assets (raw materials) occurring in nature that can be
used for economic production or consumption. Natural resources can also be defined as the
resources that exist naturally on the earth planet independent of human actions for its generation
or production. It refers to any source of wealth that occurs naturally, such as land, water, soil, plant,
animals and minerals, especially, fossil fuels, coal, among others. They are the natural capital out
of which other forms of capital are made. These are the resources that are found in the environment
and are developed without the intervention of humans. They are known as natural resources
because they provide for the basis of life on earth.
Characteristics of Natural Resources
The following are general characteristics of natural rsources
• Uneven Distribution: Natural resources are natural endowment and their distribution is
uneven both within and between countries. Some countries have monopoly of some natural
resources. For instance, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, Egypt, Libya, USA, Russia are
endowed with crude oil. Also, Ghana and South Africa are blessed with huge deposits of
gold. However, this is not true of forests. Most countries are capable of growing forest-it
is not as uneven as other resources like the non-renewable ones.
• Destructibility: Most natural resources are destroyed in the process of use. Resource
destruction could ensue/arise from the process of consumption of coal and firewood for
cooking, fuel for vehicles among others. Most of the problems of desertification and
iridization were said to have resulted from the activities of human on the natural vegetation
shifting cultivation, burning of forest for games and grazing and browsing of the natural
vegetation leading to desertification of the original vegetation.
• Importance of time factor: For most renewable resources, there is always a waiting period
for their production to be increased. For timber, there is a minimum period for maturity
The growth rate of most biological organisms is beyond human influence.
• Common Property: Ownership of natural resources is not clearly defined since they are
gifts of nature; no man can claim ownership. Example, marble industry in Oyo State and
the attendant rows deep sea fishery, forestry are also common properties. Hence, people go
into the bush to fetch fire woods, pick snails among others. Most forest reserves belong to
the State and communities. In Ghana, the President is the topmost stakeholder and
custodian of all mineral resources (Baddianaah, Baatuuwie, & Adongo, 2022).
67
• Natural Resources as part of the Environment: Natural resources form integral part of
the environment (the living and non-living surrounding). The users quite often are not
aware of the effects of their actions in forests on the adjoining to forest areas.
• Versatility: This implies that natural resources can be stored for long period of time
without deterioration. This is particularly true of resources derived from geological
processes such Coal, oil (petroleum).
• Finiteness: This refers to the quantity available at a given time. The quantity of natural
resources available is absolutely fixed. This is what the engineers and technologists refer
to as "Proven-supply". i.e. the quantity of the resource known to exist, for instance,
resources obtained through geological processes. Their development requires a time scale
and quantity cannot be increased on the short run.
Activity 1.2
1. Explain the concept resources
2. Define the term natural resources
3. Outline any five characteristics of natural resources
Summary
This section thoroughly examined the concept of resources. Resources refer to any form of material
available to society, which is used in the production of goods and service to meet the needs of
human kind. In other words, resources are potential wealth or assets available to an individual, a
community or a nation that can be effectively used in the production of goods and services for
human consumption. Examples include: land, minerals, biodiversity, sunlight, soil, water bodies,
people, artifacts among others. Resources can be grouped into three, namely; human resources,
natural resources and artificial resources. The section also unpacked the term natural resources.
Natural resource is used to cover all products of the earth that supports human life. They consist
of all materials provided by nature which is used in the production of goods and services to satisfy
human needs. Examples include: Water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, lagoons, seas, pound
and so on; Mineral deposits: such as gold, diamond, manganese, bauxite, crude oil and others.
Finally, this section examined the various characteristics of natural resources. I hope you did enjoy
every bit of the section. Good!!!
SECTION 2
TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Introduction
Dear student, you are welcome to Section 2 of this Unit. In the previous Section you learnt about
the meaning and characteristics of natural resources. In this section, we are going to examine the
various ways natural resources can be categorized as well as their importance. The goal is to equip
you with knowledge and skills to deliver inclusive, equitable, high-quality teaching for all learners
in basic school.
Learning Indicators
By the end of the section, student teachers should be able to:
1. Examine various ways natural resources can be categorized
2. Discuss the importance of natural resources
Categorization of Natural Resources
1. Based of Renewability, natural resources can be classified as:
• Renewable Natural Resource: These are natural resources which are capable of
regenerating or replacing themselves after they have being used. Renewable natural
resources are biological in nature. Examples include: forest, fish, rivers, sunlight
etc. However, products from renewable natural resources cannot be stored for a
long time.
• Non-Renewable Natural Resources: This type of natural resource is finite or fixed
in supply. Non-renewable natural resources are those type of resources which are
not capable of replacing themselves through natural process after they have been
used up. One important feature of this group of natural resources is that, they can
be stored for a long period of time. Examples of non-renewable natural resources
include all minerals such gold, diamond, manganese, bauxite, iron ore and crude
oil.
The main distinction between Renewable and Non-Renewable Natural resources are
illustrated in the Table 1.
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Table 1: Differences between Renewable and Non-Renewable Natural resources
Renewable resources
Non-Renewable resources
Renewable resources are capable of
regenerating themselves after being used
by man
Non-renewable resources take millions
of years to form once exhausted
Some renewable resources are also called
inexhaustible resources. Eg, ocean water,
solar energy etc.
Non-Renewable resources are called
exhaustible resources
Examples of Renewable resources are
water, forest, solar energy, ocean water
and air
Example of Non-Renewable resources
include minerals, soil, and Fossil fuel
Renewable resources are abundant in
nature
Non-Renewable resources are scarce in
nature
Renewable resources are environment
friendly resources because they do not
release any harmful substances into the
atmosphere
Non-Renewable resources are not
environment friendly resources because
they discharge carbon dioxide, methane
and other toxic gases while burning
2. Based on the Origin, natural resources are classified as:
• Biotic resources: The Biotic natural resources are the ones that come from the organic and
living materials. These include resources such as animals, forests (vegetation), and other
materials obtainable from them. Fossil fuels such as petroleum, crude oil, and coal are also
included in this grouping because they are generated from decayed organic matter.
• Non-biotic resources: The abiotic natural resources are the ones that come from non
organic and nonliving materials. Examples of abiotic natural resources are water, land, air
and heavy metals like iron, copper, silver, gold, among others.
3. Based on their level of Development, natural resources can be categorized as:
• Actual resources: Actual resources also known as developed resources are those resources
which humans have discovered and developed over a long time. They have already been
surveyed, their quantity and quality has also been determined and are currently being used.
Most of the water, fossil fuel, minerals, plants and animals that we use for our need today,
are actual resources. The development of actual resources is dependent on technology.
• Potential resources: Potential resources are those natural resources which are already
easily available but humans are yet to discover their real power. For example, solar and
wind energy are two natural resources, which have a high potential for human life. Though
we are using it, we can use these even more in the future once we understand their true potential. Similarly, if a country has petroleum in sedimentary rocks, it is a potential
resource until it is actually drilled out of the rock and put to use.
• Stock resources: These are those resources for which presently there is no technology to
extract them. These are resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due a lack
of technology. For example, Water consists of Hydrogen and Oxygen which are
inflammable but we do not know the technology to extract energy from these elements.
• Reserve resources: Reserve resources are those actual resources which we are not
extracting them at present in spite of technological availability. They are stored to meet
world’s future requirements. Storing of water in dam to meet energy requirement such as
generating electricity in future is an example of reserve resources.
Activity 1.3
1. Explain two ways natural resources can be categorized based on their renewability.
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Importance of Natural Resources
1. he exploitation of natural resources has offered employment to a large number of people
in Ghana. The agriculture sector alone employs more than half of the active labour force.
The mining sector in Ghana in (2006) for instance, employs about 30,000 workers with
AngloGold Ashanti alone employing about 10,000 workers. These employment
opportunities help to alleviate poverty and to reduce social vices in the county.
2. Food supply: All the food we eat come from plants and animals (biological natural
resources). Major food crops which Ghana’s natural resources supply include: plantain,
yam, maize, cocoyam, millet, cassava, beans, fish, livestock, and poultry among others.
Food helps people to survive and have the energy to work in the other sectors of the
economy.
3. Provision of raw materials for the manufacturing industries.
4. Source of foreign exchange. Natural resources constitute a major source of foreign revenue
to the government of Ghana. For instance, according to Ayertey (2002), in (1994) the
government earned $590 million from mineral resources whilst timber contributed about
$170 million. Similarly, in the first quarter of 2022, Ghana earned 731 million dollars from
crude oil production (Joy News, 2022).
5. Source of internal revenue. For instance, the mining industry contributes to government’s
internal revenue through the payment of royalties, cooperate taxes, Pay As You Earn
(PAYE), and reconstruction levy. For example, royalty payments totaling almost 154
10billion old Ghana cedis were received in 2002. Of this, royalty payments from gold mining
alone stood at 142 billion old Ghana cedis; manganese stood at 5.5 billion old Ghana cedis;
bauxite stood at 3.5 billion old cedis; diamond 398 million old cedis; while salt and quarries
stood at 759 million old cedis (Ofosu-Kusi, 2006).
6. Some of the natural resources in Ghana attract tourism. For instance, Kintampo and Wli
waterfalls, mountain Afadjato, Gambaga scarp, Lake Bosumtwi, Mole National Park and
others attracts both domestic and external tourists all year round.
Factors that Hamper (hinder) Ghana from Tapping her Natural Resources Efficiently
1. Low level of technology: Technology required for extraction of natural resources is
expensive. Hundreds of millions of dollars are required to construct an oil rig. Additionally,
millions of dollars are needed to construct and underground mind which Ghana most often
do not have. Again, these technologies have to be imported which add to the cost of
production. This and other factors prevent the country from tapping her natural resources
efficiently. Several mineral resources in Ghana remain untapped due this and other factors.
To overcome these shortcomings in the mining sector, most Ghanaian unemployed youth
in the mining communities rather adopts primitive and local technology to engage in illegal
mining (Galamsey) which is wreaking havoc on the vegetation, land and water resources
of the country. The youth are destroying the environment to prevent their own destruction.
2. Insufficient capital: Ghana does not have adequate capital to invest in the extraction of
her natural resources. For instance, the oil sector, foreign companies have invested huge
capital that sector. Returns from these investments comes in the form of hundreds of
millions these companies earn annually which go back to those private entities. As a result,
the country drives little benefit from the sector in the form of royalties, income taxes, and
corporates taxes.
3. Inadequate skilled manpower: Until recently, Ghana did not have skilled and technical
personal such mining engineers, petrochemical engineers, welders, hydrological engineers,
geodetic surveyors and others to support in the extraction of the natural resources in the
country. In some instances, scarce foreign currencies are used to import foreign expatriates
to work in these areas which discourages large scale investment.
4. The fluctuations nature of the prices of most of the natural resources: At the world
market, prices of natural resources like gold, timber, cocoa, bauxite, diamond, crude oil
and the like keep changing which discourages large scale investment in the primary sector.
5. Ignorance on the existence of natural resources: Ghana as a country has so many natural
resources. However, due to ignorance, policy makers do not know about the existence of
other natural resources and their potential value.
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Activity 1.4
1. Discuss five importance of natural resources
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Summary
In this section, you studied the importance and ways in which natural resources are being
categorized. Generally, natural resources are classified based on their stage of development,
renewability and origin. We also discussed the importance of natural resources to include
tourist attraction, provision of employment, generation of foreign exchange, food supply,
among others. I believe you have enjoyed every bit of this section not so? Good job!!!13
SECTION 3
LAND, WATER AND AIR AS NATURAL RESOURCES
Introduction
Dear learner, you are welcome to section 3 of this unit. In the previous unit, you learned about
types and importance of natural resources. I hope you found the content interesting to learn. In this
section, we are going to unpack the importance of land, water and air as natural resources.
Therefore, this section examines land, water and air as natural resources. The overall goal of the
section is to equip pre-service teachers with relevant knowledge, skills and professional attitudes
and values to be able to deliver equitable, inclusive, and active learning of these concepts to basic
school students. The specific purpose of this section is to equip you with knowledge and skills to
teach the concept of land, water and air as natural resources to basic school students.
Learning Indicators
By the end of the section, student teachers should be able to:
1. Discuss the relevance of land as natural resource
2. Explain the importance of water as natural resource
3. Examine various importance of air as natural resource
An Overview of the Concept Land as Natural Resource
Land is considered as an important resource as it provides habitation to a wide variety of flora and
fauna. It is also used by human beings for various purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining,
building houses, construction of roads, and setting up industries. Land is the basis for agriculture
and other rural land uses, encompassing soils, climate, vegetation, topography and other natural
resources. The UN defines land as “a delineable area of the earth’s terrestrial surface,
encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface including
those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including
shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated
groundwater reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical
results of past and present human activities (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2022).
Importance of Land
1. Land supports Biodiversity: The topsoil, just a few centimeters in thickness, supports all plant
growth and is hence the life support system. Land offer habitat for most of the plants and animal
(flora and fauna).
2. Land helps all kinds of construction: All of the roads, flyovers, stadiums, airports and
structures on earth today are constructed on a piece of land. Human civilization has taken shape
on land. Land again fulfill the basic need of human civilization such as food, cloth and shelter3. Land is used for agricultural purposes: Everything that a farmer does is done on land and
without land, there will be no agriculture. Land is equally useful in terms of recreational purposes
it is used for wildlife conservation, such as game reserves and national parks.
4. Land can be Used as a Collateral: Land can be used as collateral to obtain a loan from a
commercial bank as long the one who possesses the land has a valid Certificate of Occupancy.
4. Land as a reservoir of resources: Land serves as the store of basic resources like groundwater,
minerals, and fossil fuels.
5. Land becomes a dump for solid and liquid waste: All types of waste in this planet including
solid, liquid, medical waste and nuclear waste are dump on the land. However, emphasis here is
placed on responsible and environmentally friendly disposal of waste and not those witnessed in
towns major cities in Ghana
Activity 1.5
1. Discuss four relevance of land as natural resource
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An Overview of the Concept Water as Natural Resource
For humans, aquatic ecosystems represent a source of water, food, materials as well as a room for
recreation, commercial fishing, and tourism. Another huge importance of water bodies comes with
the aquatic plants and animals and their ecological functions for our survival.
Importance of Water bodies
There is a wide diversity of water bodies on Earth, some being ancient and others very recent. As
a means of reference, and for understanding similarities and differences between systems, a
classification of water bodies is required. This classification of water bodies includes lakes,
streams and rivers, oceans, swamps and wetlands among others. The following are importance of
water bodies.
• Source of drinking water: All living organisms are dependent on water to complete their
life cycles as water is an essential component of cells. The earliest sources of water for
human consumption were rivers, lakes and ponds from which water is collected for
drinking and cooking. Waste water is then discharged on to local land to fertilise crops, or
into ponds and rivers (downstream from settlements) to increase the production of fish. All
14plants and animals use water to support their growth. Human depend so much on treated
water from rivers, lakes, ponds and streams which used for drinking, bathing, cooking
among others. Although urban planning has existed for thousands of years, it is only
relatively recently that we have learned the consequences of pollution both of drinking
water supplies and of habitats. But efforts are being put in place by Water Resources
Commission in Ghana to protect all water resources for sustainable use.
• Water bodies like rivers support transportation: Water has always been used by
humans as a means of transport. Early humans used rafts and simply-constructed boats to
move on the surface of water and thus migrate, or carry cargo from one location to another.
After societies developed there was a need to explore and conquer new territories and some
migrations on water took place over long distances. As towns and cities developed near
rivers, coasts or on lakeshores, transport was needed to conduct trade and to bring in
essential supplies, most of which could no longer be provided locally. This led to trading
and shipping routes but this is a slow method of transport, although large cargoes are still
carried by sea.
• Source of human food including fish: Water bodies also contain important sources of
food. Aquatic plants and animals, both vertebrates and invertebrates, have been harvested
for a very long time and remain a staple diet of many human communities. As settlements
grew larger and transport links developed, food acquisition became commercialised and
stocks were no longer an easily monitored local resource. This commercialisation has led
to over-exploitation of natural stocks and we have developed farming techniques to supply
demand, although the farming of marine and freshwater organisms by human societies has
ancient origins.
• Water bodies support Farming: Fresh water is needed to irrigate terrestrial or emergent
crop plants and is drawn from rivers, lakes, impoundments and containers of many kinds.
Many rivers also provide fertile alluvium when water levels drop after seasonal flooding.
Irrigation schemes use channels and dikes to duct water to crops that are sometimes
maintained under water, as in rice paddies. Large-scale irrigation schemes often impound
rivers to allow a more regular discharge of water than would occur naturally, when
droughts, unpredictable pulses of water, and seasonal floods were the norm. This has the
advantage of extending growing seasons and ensuring the regular production of crops
throughout the year. Water is of special significance in deserts where rainfall is very low
or non-existent. Oases are essential in allowing human colonisation and in providing
watering holes for pack animals used in trade and migration. Examples of the irrigation
schemes in Ghana are Tano irrigation scheme in the Upper East region, Aveyime Irrigation
scheme in the Volta region, Bontanga Irrigation scheme in Northern region, Kikam in the
Western region, Nasia project among others. Presently, Ghana Irrigation Development
Authority (GIDA) planned to construct an additional 8 irrigation projects to ensure all year
round cultivation of crops.
• Water bodies like rivers support generation of hydroelectric power: Moving water
provides an important source of energy that can be harnessed to drive machinery or
generate hydroelectric power. Until the advent of large steam engines, mill streams were
cut to divert some river water over a water wheel used to power rotating mill wheels or
other machinery. Often, an upstream lake was created by impoundment to ensure that there
was a near constant head of water. This principle developed into the use of turbines for
power generation, large rivers being dammed and water passing though pipes to generators,
15often with a considerable drop in vertical water level to ensure maximum power output.
Although some countries are dependent on hydroelectric power generation for a significant
amount of their power supplies, this source is usually secondary to power generation as a
result of burning fossil fuels or from nuclear reactions. For example, river Volta is dam at
Akosombo to generate hydroelectricity for Ghana. The sea is also used for generating
power, advantage being taken of tidal cycles or the action of waves. At present, these
technologies are expensive to develop, produce, and maintain for the amount of power that
is generated.
• Water bodies like rivers support recreation and attract tourists: Most of us like to
spend time near water. Many holidays are taken by the sea or large lakes so that we can
enjoy paddling, swimming, boating, fishing and other aquatic recreations. Sport fishing is
a major pastime in many parts of the world and anglers are among the most acute observers
of the aquatic world. Examples of such water bodies in Ghana are Volta Lake with its dam
at Akosombo, Lake Bosomtwi, Boti water falls, Kintampo water falls among others. These
water bodies attract both local and international tourists throughout the year. Water is also
important aesthetically, featuring in paintings, ceramics and garden design as well as being
an inspiration to composers of music
Activity 1.6
1. Explain three importance of water bodies as natural resource
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Air as Natural Resource
Air is another critical resource for humans, plants, animals and all other organisms within a natural
ecosystem. Air must be monitored in order to control and lower pollution levels, control smoke
caused by wildland fires, and to ensure of air quality. Ancient philosophers considered air as a
most vital element. Mayow in 1674 proved that air is not an element but is a mixture of two
substances, one of which is active and the other is non-active. Lavoisier in 1789 named the active
element as oxygen and said that it is 1/5th of the total volume of air. The non-active element in air
is nitrogen and it is about 4/5th of the total volume of air. The ratio of oxygen and nitrogen in the
air is about 1:4 by volume. The air in the Earth’s atmosphere is made of approximately 78%
nitrogen and 2% oxygen. Air also has small amount of other gases such as carbon dioxide, neon,
and hydrogen.
Atmosphere
The region of air around earth is called atmosphere. Atmosphere protects us and all living organism
from harmful radiations of the sun like ultraviolet rays. We can divide the atmosphere into different
16layers according to temperature, pressure variation and composition. The main layers of the
atmosphere from the surface of earth upward are troposphere (0-10 km), stratosphere (10-50 km),
mesosphere (50-85 km) and thermosphere (85-500 km). See Figure 1 for details.
Figure 1: Structure of the Atmosphere
Importance of Atmosphere
• The atmosphere provides a place for plants and living beings to thrive: One of the
main reasons why the atmosphere is important is that it protects the Earth from the vacuum.
Without the atmosphere, there would be no air on our planet, meaning that no life would
17exist. Besides, hydroxyl radicals enable the atmosphere to control the number of
pollutants and are responsible for the atmosphere’s self-cleaning properties.
The chemistry of our planet’s atmosphere provides a relatively
safe environment for plants and living things to thrive.
• The atmosphere plays a critical role in maintaining the earth’s temperature: The
temperature on earth depends on the amount of energy entering and leaving the system.
Along with nitrogen and oxygen, the troposphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere,
consists of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
fluorinated (industrial) gases. These gases are responsible for keeping the Earth warm by
preventing heat loss to space.
• The atmosphere enables us to hear sounds: As you may already know, sound is a type
of energy or a wave created by a vibrating object. In order to hear sounds, sound
vibrations must travel in a wave pattern by means of vibrating objects. As a matter of fact,
sound waves cannot travel through empty spaces. However, they can travel through the
air, water, or even solids. On the earth, sound waves use the gases in the atmosphere to
move the vibrations. Without the atmosphere, our planet would be completely silent.
• The troposphere is responsible for the movement of water: The troposphere is the
lowest layer of the atmosphere and around 75-80% of the entire atmosphere is in this layer.
While other layers contain some moisture as well, the troposphere is the wettest
layer acting as a medium for water movement. Hence, almost all weather occurs within the
troposphere. Without the troposphere or the atmosphere as a whole, there would not be any
weather on earth.
• The stratosphere protects life on the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation: The
ozone layer in the stratosphere acts as a filter that protects us from harmful UV
radiation. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation from the sun, producing oxygen molecules and
oxygen atoms. In this way, the ozone layer prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching
the Earth. That is why the stratosphere is often considered to be the shield that protects the
Earth’s surface through the filtration of UV radiation.
• Commercial planes fly in the stratosphere: The stratosphere is a stratified, also referred
to as a stable, layer of the atmosphere. Although the atmospheric pressure and oxygen
levels are pretty low for human survival, the stratosphere is the ideal layer for commercial
planes. There are several reasons for this, including enhanced fuel efficiency, little to no
air traffic, fewer risks linked with different weather events, and the ability to handle
emergencies in a timely manner.
• The mesosphere provides physical protection against meteors, rock fragments, and
other particles: Along with chemical protection, the earth needs some physical protection
as well. The third layer of the atmosphere, known as the mesosphere, is a protective layer
that destroys most of the meteors, asteroids, rock fragments, and other particles that can
18harm the Earth. According to Meteorology en Red, approximately 40 tons of meteorites
fall toward our planet daily, but the mesosphere manages to burn them up before they reach
the Earth’s surface.
• Space shuttles fly and the international space station orbits in the thermosphere:
While the thermosphere is yet another protective layer of the atmosphere, it also enables
scientists to explore space. Without this layer, space communication would not be
possible. According to NASA Science, the thermosphere is home to low Earth orbit
satellites and the International Space Station that orbits the Earth.
• Ionosphere is responsible for gorgeous aurora displays we see across the night sky:
The ionosphere is one of the secondary layers of the atmosphere. Along with absorbing the
extreme UV rays, the ionosphere reflects and modifies radio waves that scientists use for
communication and navigation purposes. In the ionosphere, ions from the solar wind
collide with the oxygen and nitrogen atoms from the atmosphere, releasing energy that
leads to the formation of shimmery aurora displays in the sky.
Activity 1.7
1. Discuss five importance of the atmosphere
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Summary
This section discussed land, water and air as natural resources. The section explored various uses
of land such as land for agriculture, construction, transportation, reservoir of minerals among
others. We also examined water as natural resource and dovetailed into various uses of water
bodies such as transportation, source of fish and other marine food, provision of a platform for
water transportation, support the generation of hydroelectric power, support irrigation systems,
among others. Finally, the section discussed air as a natural resource and proceeded to explore the
importance of atmosphere. The atmosphere offers a place for living things and plants to thrive;
play a key role in maintaining earth’s temperature; enable us to hear sounds; is responsible for
movement of water; protects life on the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation; supports aviation
industry; and provides physical protection against meteors, rock fragments and other particles. I
guess you did enjoy every part of this section not so? Congratulations!!!
SECTION 4
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY
Introduction
You are welcome to section 4 of this unit. In the previous section, you learnt about land, water and
air as natural resources. This section focuses on human activities that have negative impact on
natural resources, with particular reference to biological resources. Emphasis is placed on
agricultural, mining, lumbering, transportation, settlements and commercial activities that tend to
destroy the ecosystems in the environment. The purpose is to support pre-service teachers
appreciate the consequences of human activities on the natural environment with emphasis on
biodiversity. This will equip them with knowledge and skills to teach Social Studies at the basic
level.
Learning Indicators
By the end of the section, you should be able to:
1. Examine how mining, agriculture, lumbering, transportation and settlement construction
destroy the ecosystem
2. Suggest equitable and student-centered instructional pedagogies that can be employed to teach
how human activities that destroy the environment for basic school students
Adverse impact of human activities on the environment
1. Mining: All mining activities especially the surface mining cause significant destruction of the
forest, farm lands, water bodies which ultimately lead to climate change. Other key environmental
effect of mining includes water and air pollution, flooding, land degradation, siltation and loss of
biodiversity. The disconnection between the state institutions and local authorities in fighting
galamsey in Ghana has implications on the general environment in Ghana (Baddianaah,
Baatuuwie, & Adongo, 2022).
2. Construction: Construction of roads, schools, hospitals, bridges, airports and the like destroy
the vegetation, damages the natural ecosystem and can contribute to flooding. Construction
activities also pollutes the air and degrade the land. Recent data shows that construction sector
alone contributes up to 23% of air pollution, 40% of drinking water pollution, and almost 50% of
landfill wastes.
3. Lumbering: Lumbering is the growing, tendering and extraction of trees. It could be done in
an already existing forest or sometimes trees are deliberately cultivated for timber (Dadson, 2007).
Lumbering causes deforestation leading to reduction of arable land for farming, depletion of
biodiversity, climate change, reduction of humidity and rainfall among others.
4. Agriculture: Agriculture is the leading source of pollution in many countries. Pesticides,
chemical fertilizers and other toxic chemicals can poison fresh water, marine ecosystem, air and soil. Pollution from agriculture can remain in the environment for generations. Fertilizer run-off
can negatively affect waterways and coral reefs.
Activity 1.8
1. Examine any two ways mining, agriculture, lumbering, transportation and settlement
construction destroy the ecosystem
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Equitable, inclusive and Student-centered Instructional Techniques that can be employed
to teach Adverse of human activities on the environment
The following Techniques of Teaching can be employed to teach how human activities destroy
the environment:
• Brainstorming Technique: Brainstorming is a technique for generating ideas uncritically,
with comments and evaluation considered later. Martorella (1994) cited in Kwarteng and
Anim (2009) defined brainstorming as a strategy by which members of group brings out
as many solutions as possible to a problem that can be solved. In brainstorming lessons,
leaners are motivated to say the first thing that comes into their minds about a given
problem or issue. The spontaneous responses are drawn upon learner’s personal experience
or the relevant previous knowledge. The purpose of brainstorming is basically to generate
as many ideas as possible on a given problem. In brainstorming, there is a solvable problem,
teacher act as a facilitator not a lecturer, learners are members of the group, there is no
wrong answer, and finally, teachers and learners agree together to select appropriate ideas
that best solve the problem. In brainstorming, students become more informed and
knowledgeable because of the varied opinions expressed. It promotes critical thinking and
creativity among learners because learners have to do thorough analysis before conclusion.
It also promotes tolerance and builds positive inter personal relationships among learners.
The technique is also useful for stimulating creativity in an active class.
• Simulation Technique: Simulations are instructional scenarios where the student is placed
in a ‘world’ defined by the teacher. Put differently, Simulation is a technique that enables
learners to obtain skills, competencies, knowledge or behaviors by getting involved in
situations that are similar to real life (Gilley, 1991). For instance, the class can be given the
chance to perform how illegal mining (galamsey), construction and lumbering destroy the
environment. Simulation involves role playing or an imitation of a real-life situation.
Simulations are also games. However, a game is essentially a competition whereas
simulation is not. Again, game has a set of rules whereas a simulation has no set of rules.
In a game, we play to win or lose. This does not occur in a simulation. Finally, in a
21simulation, the whole class participates while in a game, not all learners in the class
participate. Simulations makes Social Studies lessons practical and meaningful; students
become active participants in the lesson rather than passive observers; it arouses and
sustained interest of learners throughout the lesson leading to active participation; learners
are motivated to learn which may result in high retention and application of facts, skills,
knowledge and attitudes acquired; and when properly presented is the most powerful
technique for generating creative and critical thinking among learners.
• Debate: A debate is an organized or formal discussion of an issue or topic between two
opposing teams, with each team trying to convince the other to accept its point of view on
the topic or issue. Put differently, a debate can be defined as an intellectual competition
where members of groups with opposing attitudes or ideas may use to explore their
differences and finally see if they can reach a consensus. Students could be put in two
groups with one group tasked to discuss the benefits of human activities such as mining,
agriculture, lumbering, and construction while the opposing group unpack the adverse
effects of those same human activities on the environment. The use of debate technique
can promote cooperative learning and fosters interdependence among leaners; sharpens
communication skills and report writing skills among learners; enhances tolerance of
divergent views among learners; promote acquisition of leadership skills, critical and
reflective thinking among students; and help learners to amass data, interpret the data to
argue logically based on evidence. Debates will again prepare learners to develop
confidence in making public speaking.
• Discussion Technique: A discussion is a technique of teaching where learners are allowed
to give their views about a topic or problem after a careful study of that issue (Aggarwal
1982) cited in Kwarteng and Anim (2009). Discussion is concerned with the analysis,
comparisons, evaluation and conclusions based on these relationships. Gage (1969)
reported that a discussion technique of teaching involves a teacher’s engagement of two or
more learners in a co-operative examination and comparison of views in order to illuminate
an issue and contribute to the learners understanding. The class can be divided into four
groups and each group given human activities such as mining, agriculture, lumbering, and
construction to examine their adverse impacts on the ecosystem. After group discussion,
the come out to share their thoughts with the entire class for final evaluation. The use
discussion to teach this topic will enable students to develop creativity and critical thinking
skills; provide a high level of motivation which enhances learners’ participation in teaching
and learning process; makes learners more tolerant as they become aware of divergent
views which they may disagree with but have to accommodate; and promotes cooperative
learning, peer teaching and group feelings which binds learners together. Moreover, in
discussion, students’ misconceptions, prejudices and biases are frequently modified when
they are subjected to the scrutiny by the entire class; it promotes inquiry skills such as
reading, observation, researching and discovery of new knowledge by students; sharpens
students listening and communication skills.
22• Meaning of Think-pair-share Technique: Think-pair-share is a collaborative teaching
strategy initially proposed by Frank Lyman of the University of Maryland in 1981. It is
used to assist learners form individual ideas, discuss and share with others in a group and
then with whole class if possible. It can be applied before reading or teaching a concept
and very useful and effective with small groups. Think-pair-share technique is grounded
on constructivist views on learning where a learner is placed at the center of teaching and
learning to enable him/her interact with peers, teacher, and instructional resources to
construct and discover knowledge based on his/her own experiences. Learning is an active
process where meaning is constructed based on experiences. Richer experiences in Social
Studies lessons can facilitate meaningful learning. The use of Think-pair-share technique
in teaching adverse effects of human activities on the environment will promote co
operative learning and collaboration among students which is part of core competences in
Social Studies education. It will also promote critical thinking and creativity as learners
have think analytically before finding answers to questions; teach learners the habit of
sharing ideas with peers and sharpened their oral communication skills; and helps focus
attention and engage students in understanding the reading material.
Activity 1.9
1. Suggest three equitable and student-centered instructional techniques that can be employed to
teach the adverse effects of human activities on the environment for basic school students.
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Summary
This section took a critical overview of the adverse effects of human activities on the environment.
Those human activities reviewed were agriculture, mining, lumbering, and construction. Finally,
the section examined various equitable and student-centered instructional pedagogies that can be
employed to teach the adverse effects of human activities on the environment for basic school
students. I hope you enjoy every bit of this lesson not so? Bravo!!!
SECTION 5
SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN GHANA
Introduction
Dear Student teacher, you are welcome to Section 5 of this unit. In the previous section you learned
about human activities and their impact on the environment. In this section, we shall explore
strategies that could be adopted to manage natural resources sustainably in Ghana. You are
expected to discuss strategies for biodiversity conservation, land and water resource management
to enable Ghana achieve SDGs 14 and 15. The section is also intended to help you demonstrate
how you can use the knowledge of sustainable resource management to teach related topics in the
basic school Social Studies curriculum.
Learning Indicators
By the end of the section, you should be able to:
1. Discuss various ways of managing natural resources in Ghana
2. Suggest equitable, inclusive and active learning strategies that can be employed to teach
sustainable utilization of natural resources to basic school students.
Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
Biodiversity refers to the variability of earth’s living things and their interactions in nature among
themselves and their habitats. Biological diversity is not confined solely to the species of animals,
higher plants, mosses, lichens, fungi and microorganisms but is further subdivided into sub-species
and regional varieties, and also into different genetic populations. For this reason, biological
diversity includes genetic diversity within a species, as well as the habitats of organisms and
ecosystems. Invariably, biodiversity encompasses everything which contributes to the diversity of
living nature (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2016). Biodiversity conservation
strategy is a plan to enhance and protect the variety of native species and ecosystems in a given
geographical area. Approaches to biodiversity conservation in Ghana is both in situ (use of both
traditional and scientific methods – sacred growth and protected areas), and ex situ (gene banks,
zoological and botanical gardens). The ex situ conservation facilities in Ghana are located at (i)
University of Cape Coast (Botany Department Herbarium), (ii) University of Ghana (Zoology
Department Entomology Museum, Botany Department Herbarium and Botanical Gardens and
Noguchi Memorial Institute of Medical Research), (iii)Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology Botanical Gardens and Forestry Herbarium, (iv) Accra Zoo, (v) Kumasi Zoo (vi)
Aburi Botanical Gardens, (vii) Bunso Plant Genetics Research Centre and Arboretum, and (viii)
Akropong Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine Herbarium and Arboretum. The
following are strategies that can be adopted to conserve the biodiversity in the ecosystem.
1. Establishment of zoos, parks, botanical gardens, and plants DNA banks. These facilities will not
only provide housing and support for the endangered species, but also have educational and
24recreational value for the entire society. Examples are Mole national park near Damongo in the
Savana region, Kakum national park near Cape Coast in the Central Region, Bui national park,
Ankasa resources reserve, Asubima forest reserve among others. Ghana has a large system of 21
protected areas which include 6 resource reserves, 2 wildlife Sanctuaries, 1 strict nature reserve
and 5 coastal wetlands
2. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and agricultural animals should be
conserved.
3. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved. Unique
ecosystems should be preserved first.
4. The resources should be utilized efficiently. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be
prevented.
5. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully. The levels of pollutants should
be reduced in the environment.
6. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited. Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
7. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in their nature as
well as artificial habitats. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation
and its importance.
Pedagogical Strategies to Teach Biodiversity Conservation in Basic schools
The following pedagogical techniques can be adopted to teach biodiversity conservation basic
schools:
• Lecture Technique/Teacher presentation: Lecture method is expository in nature.
Percival and Ellington as cited in Twoli et al (2007) defined a lecture as a didactic
instructional method involving one way communication form the active presenter (teacher)
to the more or less passive audience (learners). Others perceived lecture as an occasion to
relax while some one talks. It is one of the oldest methods of teaching. Lecture is an
instructional strategy where teacher presents his planned facts to students while the
students listen and take notes. In this method, teachers can give out information on
biodiversity conservation directly to students to study and come to class for group
discussion supported by the teachers. Lecture technique is suitable when handling large
classes; very easy and convenient for a teacher to prepare; and make it possible for teachers
to cover several topics/strands within a shortest possible time. Lecture technique is
economical as it requires limited instructional resources; can be useful and motivating if
the teacher is eloquent and insert few jokes, students’ questions and open for few
discussions.
• Experiential learning: Various terms have been used to label the process of learning from
experience. John Dewey (Dewey and Dewey 1915) discussed “learning by doing,” while
Wolfe and Byrne (1975) used the term “experienced-based learning.” The term “trial and
2526
error” learning is used to explain inductive learning processes. The AACSB Task Force
(1986) used the term “applied experiential learning,” combining the learning from the
“real-world” situation with the necessary condition of the application of concepts, ideas
and theories to the interactive setting. Experiential learning exists when a personally
responsible participant cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally processes knowledge,
skills, and/or attitudes in a learning situation characterized by a high level of active
involvement (Gentry, 1990).
• Excursions/Fieldtrips: Educational excursions or tours are short trips by students, under
the supervision of the school management. Students are taken to a place away from
their usual routine environment. The main goal of education is to impart knowledge.
Imparting knowledge through a hands-on experience is one of the ways of making learning
more interesting. In this technique, teachers could organize educational visits with the
students to University of Cape Coast (Botany Department Herbarium), (ii) University of
Ghana (Zoology Department Entomology Museum, Botany Department Herbarium and
Botanical Gardens and Noguchi Memorial Institute of Medical Research),(iii)Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Botanical Gardens and Forestry
Herbarium, (iv) Accra Zoo, (v) Kumasi Zoo (vi) Aburi Botanical Gardens, (vii) Bunso
Plant Genetics Research Centre and Arboretum, Mole national park at Damongo among
others to study the various biodiversity conservation strategies in real life context.
Activity 1.10
1. Discuss four biodiversity conservation strategies that can be used in Ghana to protect the
ecosystem
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2. Suggest four equitable, inclusive and active learning strategies that can be employed to teach
biodiversity conservation to basic school students.
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Summary
This section unpacked the various biodiversity conservation strategies. The section also discussed
techniques of teaching that can be employed by Social Studies teachers to teach biodiversity
conservation strategies to basic school students. I hope you did enjoy every part of this lesson not
so? Good!!!
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