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EDUCATION REFORMS IN GHANA
Study in Foundations of Education shall NOT be equated with “Introduction to Education” coursework unless such study clearly addresses the three perspectives indicated in this Standard and is taught by individuals specifically trained in Foundations of Education.
TEACHING AS A PROFESSION I
Conception, Misconceptions, and Prejudices of Society about Teaching
Conceptions
The general public sees the teaching profession as:
1. Assisting students to pursue their passion.
The misconceptions and prejudices that people have about the teaching profession include:
1. Low/small salary
2. Teachers not respected by the public
3. Teachers have been threatened by community members.
4. Teaching does not favour individuals with Special Education Needs (SEN)
Sources of misconceptions and prejudices
1. Culture less/no tolerance of disability education.
2. Discrimination especially against the female child
3. Religious orientation; less support for education.
4. Personal experience; seeing a teacher been beaten before.
How to address misconceptions/prejudices
1. Education- Educating the society and religious bodies will help erase such misconceptions and prejudices they have towards the teaching profession.
2. Good school and community partnership. This will help avoid or reduce teachers been beaten by community members.
The concept teacher
The concept teacher could be formal or informal. A formal teacher is the one who helps students to acquire knowledge, competence and virtue whilst anyone who shows a colleague how to perform activity is also regarded as an informal teacher.
Teaching as a profession
Teaching a profession is defined as a process whereby teacher possesses knowledge of something, commit to values which are accepted such as good dressing, good speaking and is able to impact others life to become responsible individuals in future.
What is education?
According to Kumar and Ahmad (2008), education is the development of individual according to his/her needs and demands of society, of which he/she is an integral part.
What is teaching as an art?
It is the process whereby teachers bring themselves fully into their teaching. For example, a teacher demonstrating a particular skill to students.
What is teaching as a science?
This has to do with teachers experimenting with new techniques or strategies to see how they work effectively in the classroom. For example, the use of lecture method, discussion method during teaching etc.
Qualities of a good teacher
1. Expert communication skills
2. Good listening skills
3. Deep knowledge and passion for the subject matter
4. Ability to build caring relationship with students
5. Friendliness and approachability
6. Excellent preparation and organization skills
7. Strong work ethics
8. Community-building skills
9. Impartial to all students
10. Encourage students
11. Take the responsibility as a teacher and guide students
Categories of qualities of a good teacher
Academic | Personal | Professional |
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Knowledgeable in subject area | Patient | Strong work ethics |
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Good communication skills | Caring | Impartial to all students |
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Good listening skills | Kind | Take responsibility as teacher and |
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Good preparation and | Friendly and |
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organization skills | approachable |
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| Encourages students |
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Structure of the B.Ed. Programme
The new B.Ed. programme in the Colleges of Education in Ghana is structured as:
YEAR ONE (Beginning Teaching)
During year one, tutors support student teachers with varied backgrounds and experiences from SHS to appreciate teaching. This is done by tutors introducing student teachers to: Nature and core knowledge of subjects, STS experience, Cross-cutting issues (inclusion, equity, core skills, ICT), School curriculum, and Approaches to teaching and learning.
YEAR TWO (Developing Teaching)
Under year two student teachers go through some courses, carry out small-scale classroom enquiring under the guidance of mentor (STS) and identify and assess barriers to learning for learners.
YEAR THREE (Embedding Teaching)
Under year three, student teachers go through some courses, co-plan and co-teach groups of learners and whole class, carry out small-scale classroom enquiries, provide evidence of working towards meeting the NTS and prepare for final STS (internship) in year four.
YEAR FOUR (Extending Teaching)
During year four, student teachers go to STS internship in semester one. Student teachers will return in semester two to complete some courses. By the end of year four, student teachers will:
plan, teach and assess their learners independently and consistently. Student-teacher will also carry out extensive action research project work and also provide evidence of meeting the NTS in full.
Misconceptions about learners with Special Education Needs (SEN)
Agbenyega (2003) and Anthony (2010) noted that children with special education needs are considered by the general public as: evil, lazy, idiot, stupid, useless and not capable of learning, stubborn and wilfully disobedient.
A report by United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] (2000) also revealed some misconceptions people have about individuals with Special Education Needs (SEN) as: underachievement children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, children from ethnic or cultural minorities and children from disadvantaged or marginalized areas.
Traditional belief about learners with SEN
Traditionally, children with SEN are seen by the general public as:
1. Child’s disability has been associated with the parents breaking a traditional taboo.
2. Parents upsetting local spirits by harming the land or committing an unacceptable act.
3. Parents not living up to all their responsibilities and obligations.
4. Disability has often been regarded as the consequence of a curse or a spell.
FORMS/TYPES OF SEN
1. Autism
2. Learning difficulties
3. Intellectual disability
4. Physical disability
5. Hearing impairment
6. Speech impairment
7. Visual impairment
8. Behavioural and emotional disorders
9. Spina bifida
10. Traumatic brain injury
Autism
Neurobehavioural condition that includes impairments in social interaction and communication skills combined with rigid, repetitive behaviours.
Learning difficulties
Students experience significant difficulties with at least one area of their learning at school. Difficulties in understanding and following directions, difficulty in remembering things, difficulty in getting started, short attention span and lack of confidence.
Intellectual disability
It is a substantial limitation in cognitive functioning. Have limited communication skills, limited self-care skills, poor social skills, and very limited academic skills. People have great difficulty with learning and usually require special teaching methods to learn efficiently.
Physical disability
Limitation in person’s ability to move about, use their limbs or hands or control their own movement.
Hearing impairment
Could not hear/difficulty in hearing. Some children are born with hearing loss while others develop hearing loss at some time.
Speech impairment
Children have difficulty learning, understanding or expressing language. Communication problems can lead to problems in literacy and other areas of school education.
Visual impairment
Inability to see/difficulty in seeing. When vision impairment is not addressed at school, it can lead to learning difficulties and even behavioural problems. Student misses important information, struggles to keep up with other students, loses confidence and becomes frustrated.
Behavioural and emotional disorders
Students sometimes exhibit inappropriate and unacceptable behaviours in the classroom or school. These include classroom disturbances, aggressive teasing or bullying, continual talking, taking or
interfering with other students’ property, inability to work independently or cooperatively and refusal to comply with the teacher’s instructions)
Spina bifida
Birth defect that occurs when the spinal cord does not form properly.
Traumatic brain injury
Sudden damage to the brain caused by a blow or jolt to the head.
CAUSES OF SEN
Genetic conditions
Problem during pregnancy
1. Diet of the mother
2. Physical activities the mother does
3. Medication
4. Age of the mother
Environmental conditions
Problem after birth
1. Injury to the brain
2. Abusive environment
3. Unhealthy diet
Inclusion
Inclusion has been internationally recognized as a philosophy for attaining equity, justice and quality education for all children. Inclusion happens when children with and without disabilities participate and learn together in the same classes (Salamanca Declaration, 1994). Inclusion is the process intended to respond to students’ diversity by increasing their participation and reducing exclusion within and from education (Nguyet & Ha, 2010). Inclusion goes beyond disability issues and includes quality teaching, the attendance, involvement and achievement of all students, especially those who, for different reasons, are excluded or at risk of being marginalized (UNESCO, 2009).
CAUSES OF EXCLUSION
Shaddock (2006) and Mantey (2014) indicated the following as causes of exclusion in schools. Stigma, lack of time, difficulty in organizing individualized teaching, inadequate training of mentors, unavailability of resources, no school assistance, perception that accommodating the
needs of special learners compromises the learning of others, failure to prepare SEN for the real world, attitude of the society and parental involvement.
Also, Kuyini and Mangope (2011), Ametepee and Anastasiou (2015) and Singhal et al., (2015) noted the following as causes of exclusion in schools. Inflexible curricula, rigid assessment criteria, architectural barriers, insufficient supply of teaching materials, severe prevalence of untrained instructors, over-sized classes, inadequate mentor training.
STRATEGIES FOR INCLUSION IN SCHOOLS
1. Create friendly environment to students with SEN.
2. Train teachers with skills and competencies to handle SEN students
3. Flexible curricula to all students.
4. Respect students with SEN.
5. Develop positive attitudes towards SEN.
6. Have sufficient supply of teaching materials.
7. Employing the appropriate teaching strategies.
LESSON THREE
HISTORICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL TRENDS OF EDUCATION
IN GHANA I
The meaning of education
It is very difficult to give one definite meaning of the term “Education”. Different philosophers, educationists, thinkers and artisans will give different definitions of education according to the circumstances they have been facing. The reason is that the concept education is dynamic. It is a continuous process of evolution and at every stage it had a different meaning according to conditions, then prevailing. Education deals with every-growing man in ever-growing society. Its concept, therefore, can never be static.
Etymological meaning of education
The word “education’’ is a product of joining together of ‘E’ + ‘Duco’ of which the first ‘ E’ means from inside whilst the second means to develop to move forward. Education is that which brings out innate powers of an individual which has the capacity to develop them and make them manifest. Therefore, education is not only a process of development but also an instrument of developing the innate powers of an individuals.
Education is derived from the following Latin Words:
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| Educatum |
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| To train, or act of teaching or training. |
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| Educere |
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| To lead out, to draw out |
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| Educare |
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| To mould/to bring up, to raise, to educate. |
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Western concept of education
Aristotle: “Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body… it develops man’s faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme ‘truth, goodness and beauty’ of which perfect happiness essentially consists.”
Spencer: “Education is complete living.”
John Dewey: “Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities.”
Broader meaning of education
In the broader sense, education means the process of development from ‘infancy to maturity’. It begins at birth and continues throughout the life, till death; from ‘Womb to tomb’. It includes all the knowledge and experiences acquired during infancy, childhood adolescence, youth, manhood or old age, through any agency of education i.e. the school, home church, society etc. The education becomes sum total of all experiences that the child receives inside the school or outside, through the study of different subjects, through various activities, through the library, the playground, the workshop or through other agencies. So, education is life and life itself is education. Education is nothing but experiences of life. It starts in the cradle and ends in the grave.
Narrower meaning of education
It applies to whatever taught in school or university system of education. It refers to whatever knowledge is made available to an individual at a specific time, in a specific place (school, colleges etc.), according to a specific curriculum and specific time-table, and by a particular team of teachers. It has a limited field and it primarily emphasizes the intellectual development of the student. This type of education is formal, intentional and consciously organized by the institution. Students need to pass a pre-conceived set of examination patterns through the organized way. The knowledge imparted by this method is primarily theoretical, based on information derived from text books, which only constitutes cognitive domain of human behaviour.
History of education
Deals with a comprehensive study of the evolution of ideas and institutions involved in the formal transmission of culture in various societies of the world from the earliest times to the present. It covers the following: Educational aims, contents and purposes, curricula, public attitude and support, the teaching, learning process and methods applied, the preparation of professional personnel, admission procedures, assessment, certification and financing of education.
Idea and Ideals
An idea has a form. It is an object of knowledge. When an idea is taken as a guide for action, it then becomes an ideal. Many ideas have been taken from great educators such as Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Quintillian, Pestallozi and others as guiding principles for the direction of education in Ghana. Morrison (1991) outlined five reasons why student teachers need to know about ideas.
1. Helps to know that today’s ideas are not necessarily new.
2. Draws attention to the fact that many ideas of great educators are still “dreams’’
3. Helps us to better understand how to put current teaching strategies into practice.
4. Knowledge about how children grow and develop help shape child rearing practices.
5. Knowledge of origins of early childhood education serves as inspiration to professionals (teachers)
Importance of studying history of education
1. To understand how the past events shaped the present education systems, theories and related phenomenon.
2. To know the extent to which Ghanaian philosophy of education has changed overtime from pre-colonial to contemporary times.
3. To help colonized and oppressed peoples of the world to be able to construct a theory of their own liberating action.
4. To appreciate how things have been done in the past so that emerging problems can be handled adequately.
The meaning of curriculum
The concept of curriculum is dynamic. In its narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a list of subject to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well.
What is curriculum?
There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as elusive and confusing.
Traditional Points of View of Curriculum
A body of subjects or subject matter prepared by teachers for the students to learn.
Progressive Points of View of Curriculum
It refers to the total learning experiences of the individual.
Points of View of Curriculum Development
A document which contains: Purposes of the school, educational experiences related to the purposes, organization of the experiences and evaluation of the experiences.
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools.
1. Recommended curriculum
Proposed by scholars and professional organizations. Specific things to learn.
2. Written curriculum
Appears in school, district, division documents. Lesson plan written by teachers.
3. Taught curriculum
What teachers teach or deliver in the classrooms and schools.
4. Supported curriculum
Resources textbook computers, audio visual materials which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum.
5. Assessed curriculum
That which is tested and evaluated.
6. Learned curriculum
What the students actually learn and what is measured.
7. Hidden curriculum
The unintended curriculum. E.g. Teachers mood, students mood and classroom environment which are likely to affect teaching and learning.
COMPONENT OF THE CURRICULUM
For most curricula, the major components or elements are:
1. Aims, goals and objectives: All schools shall foster love of humanity and promote respect for human right.
2. Subject matter/content: Information to be learnt in schools.
3. Learning experiences: Depend on the teaching strategies/methods to use
4. Evaluation approaches: Modes/formats students will be assessed
The meaning of Culture
Culture has to do with the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cooking, social habits, music and arts. In every society, each child goes through a process of enculturation when they grow up in a culture. Children learn by observing the behaviours of people in their surroundings, including the recognition of symbols specific to that culture.
Culture is shared
1. Culture is an attribute not of individuals per se but of individuals as members of groups.
2. Culture is transmitted by society.
3. It is symbolic; can either be verbal (linguistic) or nonverbal (object, written symbol).
Levels of culture
1. National: Learned behavioural patterns, beliefs, values, and institutions shared by the citizens of a nation. E.g. Independent day
2. International: Cultural traditions that expand beyond cultural boundaries. Eg. Sport, holiday etc.
3. Subculture: Different traditions practiced by groups set within a larger culture. Frequently regionally based. E.g. Culture of Ashanti region, central etc.
What makes cultures change
1. Diffusion: Borrowing of traits between cultures.
2. Acculturation: Exchange of cultural features that results from long-term exposure between cultures.
3. Independent invention: Developing solution to problems by individual cultures.
Example: agriculture.
Relationship among culture, education and curriculum
Culture is maintained or modified through education by way of curriculum development. Curriculum is a reflection of what people in the society feel, believe and do. What people feel, believe and do is their culture. Curriculum is an inevitable aspect of education. Therefore, there is no way in which culture can exist without some curriculum, particularly in formal setting in education. Formal education demands the posing of some simple but fundamental questions such as “What? To whom? When? and How?” (Wheeler, 1978). These are curriculum questions. In order to answer these questions, the curriculum planner must be compelled to survey and interpret the nature of his own society, its basic stable values and the areas in which it is changing (Wheeler, 1978). He must then be very familiar with the culture of the society being served. From the foregoing, it seems obvious that curriculum has a firm basis on culture. Indeed, culture is the substance of education. Culture is to education. Any society whose education (and so its curriculum) is not based on its culture is in danger of being unrooted and separated by the social institution on which it should depend for its survival.
The meaning of philosophy
Philosophy comes from the Greek word “Philos” (love) and “Sophia” (wisdom). It means “love of wisdom”. Wisdom is commonly linked with the process of knowing. Wiredu (1980) noted a basic distinction between intellectuality and wisdom. Intellectuals have knowledge but do not necessarily have the skills of ordering personal relations harmoniously. Wiseman is a master of personal relations but not necessarily a repository of a particular knowledge.
What is philosophy?
Philosophy is defined as a rational, critical and systematic inquiry into the fundamental ideas underlying human thought, experience and conduct (Gyekye, 1987). Inquiry into the nature of things based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods.
Nature of philosophy
1. Philosophical inquiry is an activity that demands critical thinking. A thoughtless person cannot engage in in philosophical argument.
2. Methodical because it uses formal methods such as reflection (Thinking deep and carefully about issues).
3. Rely on logical reasoning to make conclusions. All Akrotco students are intelligent
Esi is Akrotco student Therefore Esi is intelligent.
4. Conclusions made are regarded tentative.
Traditional viewpoint
Philosophy is seen as a discipline that is concerned with such questions as:
1. What is real? (Metaphysics)
2. What is true? (Epistemology)
3. What is right? (Axiology)
Questions of this nature, which do not demand precise answers are termed: Speculative, theoretical and analytic questions.
Speculative Philosophy
Doing systematic thinking about everything that exists. Exploring the real meaning of life.
Theoretical Philosophy
Helps to provide a standard for evaluating values, making judgement over conduct and appraising art. Finds out whether things are really as they are or outcome of thinking.
Analytic Philosophy
Analyse and criticize words, propositions and statements.
Educational philosophy
A philosophy about education requires systematic, critical thinking about educational practice. A teacher’s educational philosophy helps him/her interprets, finds meaning, and directs the daily work of the classroom.
Relevance of educational philosophy
1. Helps nurtures our capacity for making informed choices. Shallowness, incompleteness, poor reasoning and assertions with flimsy foundations prevent a truly enlightened citizenry to make informed decisions.
2. Helps students to know what they are doing and why they are doing it. Most importantly, they need to know what education is all about, its deeper meaning and significance for the man of today and for the society at large.
3. Help the students of education to think logically, systematically, consistently about educational problems.
4. Philosophy helps us to understand the nature and history of our civilization.
5. Philosophy has a bearing on both the past and the future.
6. Philosophy is a reflection on human life and experience and how best to respond to problems.
Aims of education
1. Lifelong Learning: Education should develop a love for learning and the constant willingness to unlearn and relearn. Thus, an important aim of education is to empower all students towards knowledge and learning.
2. Democratic Values: We should build in students a commitment to democratic values of equality, justice, freedom, respect for human dignity and rights, based on sensitivity to others’ well-being and feelings, together with increasing knowledge and understanding of the world.
3. Development of Creativity: Education must provide the means and opportunities to enhance the child’s creative expression. Education should enable learners to respond to new situations in a flexible and creative manner. Learner engagement is construction of knowledge and fostering of creativity is necessary as well.
4. Development of Life Skills: Development of life skills such as critical thinking, interpersonal communication, negotiation skills, problem-solving, and self-management is also very critical towards dealing with the challenges of everyday life.
5. Independence of Thought and Action: Another aim of education is the development of independence of thought and action. It should teach people to think for themselves and make important independent decisions. Education should make adequate room for voicing children’s thoughts, curiosity, and questions in curricular practices.
6. Holistic Development of Children: The school years are a period of rapid development, with changes and shifts in children’s capabilities, attitudes and interests. Holistic approach in the treatment of learners’ development and learning must be taken up
LESSON FOUR
HISTORICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL TRENDS OF EDUCATION
IN GHANA II
Traditional/indigenous education
Mushi (2009) defines indigenous education as a process of passing among the tribal members and from one generation to another the inherited knowledge, skills, cultural traditions norms and values of the tribe. Traditional education sustained society from one generation to another.
Aims/rationale of traditional education
Okobiah (1986) outlined seven aims/rationale of traditional African education as:
1. Develop the child’s latent-physical skills.
2. Inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority.
3. Develop the intellectual skills.
4. Acquire a specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest labour.
5. Develop a sense of belonging and to encourage active participation in community affairs.
6. Understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large.
Philosophical bases of traditional education
Preparedness. The role of teaching and learning was to equip boys and girls with the skills
appropriate to their gender in preparation for their distinctive roles in the society.
Functionalism. Knowledge, skills and attitudes imparted were relevant to the social economic
activities of an individual. Learners learnt by observing, imitating and initiation ceremonies.
Communalism. Learners learned/acquired a common spirit to work and life. The education was
an integral part of culture. For example, children upbringing was a whole community’s role.
Holisticism/multiple learning: Learner was required to acquire multiple skills. They were not
allowed to specialize in one specific occupation. When a learner learnt about a certain skill, say
farming he/she was obliged to learn all other skills related to farming such as, how to prepare
farms, hoeing, food preservation, how to fight with diseases attacking crops etc.
Perennialism: Education was used as a necessary tool for preserving the status quo of the tribe. Based on this fact it did not allow the progressive influence of on the mind of young people and so it was viewed as conservative in nature.
Characteristics of traditional education
1. Community oriented, geared towards solving the problems of the community. Instructional activities were directed towards prepare the learners to fit into their community.
2. It put emphasis on practical learning and the young adult learned by watching, participating and executing what they learnt. Skills like carving, masonry, clay working, cloth making, cooking and home management were insisted among the children in the community.
3. It was functional. The knowledge, skills and values that were imparted were relevant to the socio-economic activities of an individual. The learners learned the skills that were for immediate and long term activities.
4. It had no paper word-testing and certificates but learners graduated ceremoniously. There were basically no formal examinations at the end of a specific level of training, but a learner was considered a graduate when he/she was able to practice what he/she had learnt throughout the period of training.
Importance of the traditional education
1. It provided employment for every member of the community. Children learnt the skills that prepared them to immediately utilize their physical environment for self-employment.
2. It helped to maintain the socio-economic and cultural structures of the society. Learners learnt to preserve their own culture and to get rid of external influences. Also skills like masonry, clay working, carving and cloth making were taught in the view of maintaining the socio-economic and cultural heritage of the society.
3. Learners acquired communal attitudes rather than individual. From communalism philosophical base point of view, learners were taught to respect the properties of the whole society, and they used their acquired knowledge for service of the society.
The Castle Schools
Three castle schools were established in the Gold Coast. These were:
1. Elmina-Portuguese
2. Christianborg-Danes
3. Cape Coast-English
The rationale for the establishment of the castle schools
1. To educate their children with African women. Males-mulattos and Females-mulatresses
2. For evangelism
Christian converts should be able to read the bible.
3. To produce soldiers- Christianborg castle school
The castle school at Elmina
Started in 1529 by King Jomo III of Portugal. The purpose was to teach children how to read and write and how to sing and pray in church. School was terminated with the departure of the Portuguese in 1600. It was revived by the Dutch in 1637 when they seized the Elmina castle. It was originally meant for inmates in the castle but later outside pupils were admitted. Between 1820 and 1828 the school suffered from lack of funds and had no teachers. The Dutch sent people like J. E. J. Captein, Anthony William Amo of Axim and others to receive higher training outside.
The castle school at Christianborg
Initiated by Danish Resident Chaplain in 1771 with support from Danish Trading Company. It was established for mulattos and mulatresses and the Danish government took control in 1822. Major de Richellieu, a Danish governor, got involved in teaching the pupils and provided food, clothing,
and salary for the teachers. Governor Major de Richellieu invited the Basel Mission to the Gold Coast. The Danes sent people like Frederick Pedersen Svane and Christian Protten to study outside.
The castle school at Cape Coast
Started by Reverend Thomas Thompson. Thompson left for England in 1756 due to ill-health and the school was dependent on the British Company of Merchants. Reverend Thompson sent three Gold Coast boys to England to further their studies and only Philip Quarque survived. Quarque returned to Gold Coast in 1765 as a Missionary School-master. Quarque faced challenges such as lack of interest among local people, lack of funds and poor enrolment. After Quarque’s death by the merchant and renamed the Colonial school. In 1956, the school was handed over to the Cape Coast Municipal Council and is now managed by the Council’s behalf by the Anglican church. George Blankson of Anomabo who became the first pure African member of the Legislative Council in 1861 is a product of the school
Main features of the castle schools
1. Schools were meant for mulattos and mulatresses
2. Schools concentrated on teaching of religious studies and the 3 R’s (reading, writing and arithmetic)
3. Origin of Western formal education in Ghana is attributed to the humble beginnings in the castle schools.
4. The school produced the first outstanding scholar who championed the political economic and social development of the Gold Coast; George Blankson.
5. Schools established a lasting tradition of education among the people along the coast.
THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONS
1. Catholic
2. Basel
3. Wesleyan
4. Anglican
5. The African Methodist Episcopalian
6. Zion
7. Bremen
8. Seventh Day Adventist
9. and the Salvation Army Church
Aim of the Christian Missions
To proselytize the Christian faith; evangelism and education
Roman Catholic Mission
The first Portuguese who landed in Elmina established a Catholic school in the castle but the school faded away in 1644. In 1880, two French missionaries namely Father Augustine Moreau and Eugene Murrat activated Catholic educational activities. In 1883, a girls’ school was opened at Elmina by the Sisters of Our Lady of the Apostles. By 1990, a Roman Catholic school was opened at Kpandu. In 1906, a white father came to Navrongo and their official name was Missionaries of Our Lady of Africa. The missionaries adopted the long white shirt Arabs as their official gaments.
Wesleyan Mission
Reverend Joseph Dunwell started it in Gold Coast in 1835. Dunwell was invited by William de-Graft. Between 1835 and 1844, 15 missionaries perished out of the 34 sent to Gold Coast. Thomas Birch Freeman was the only who survived for longer period. In 1841 Freeman’s evidence showed that they were in existence. Most of their schools were sited in the Fante coastal towns and trading stations. Freeman arrived in Kumasi in 1839 but was refused permission to establish a school because it could lead to rebellion and political unrest in the area. In 1876, work in Kumasi resumed but still faced opposition to the establishment of schools.
Basel Missionary Society
Started in 1828 at Christainborg castle. It was transferred to Akuapem range in 1831 due to high mortality rate. At Akropong, a boy’s school was opened in 1843 and another one for girls was established in 1847. Basel missionary promoted female education. It also promoted the development of agricultural and industrial training. In 1881, the Basel Mission had 47 assisted schools. This decreased to 27 in 1891 and increased to 61 in 1901. The reduction was due to withdrawal of grants from some institutions. Placed emphasis on the use of vernacular instruction (Ga and Twi).
The African Methodist Episcopalian
Originated from Liberia in 1820. It was initiated in the Gold Coast by Bishop Small, a West Indian. Bishop Small won several admiration including Reverend Birch Freeman who resigned from the Methodist to join AME Zion church at Keta in 1898. AME Zion church sponsored Dr. E. K.
Aggrey for further studies overseas but he did not help the church upon return. AME Zion church also opened several schools.
The Bremen Mission
Started in the hinterland in 1847 by Reverend Lorenz Wolf from Germany. The mission operated at Peki Blengo in Volta area. Later moved to Keta due to problems faced in Peki. In 1890, the mission established a seminary at Amedzofe where teacher-catechists were trained. The mission set up 20 schools by 1900.
The Anglican Mission
In 1904, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) operated in the Gold Coast. Reverend N. T. Hamlyn reactivated the work of the Anglican mission. In 1914 the mission had 3 assisted schools. It increased to 6 in 1925. In 1910, the Anglican mission established Adisadel College at Cape Coast (Graham, 1976).
The Seventh Day Adventist Church (SDA)
Two pioneers; R. G. Rudolp and E. L. Sanford arrived in the country in 1894 in response to a call by a small band of believers at Apam in the Central Region of Ghana. To Adventist, true education means harmonious development of the physical, the mental and the spiritual powers. True education prepares students for the joy of service in this world and for the higher joy of wider service in the world to come. SDA places a high premium on manual work of all forms and the development of agriculture. The church also emphasize the importance of moral education in the training of scholars. The church established several schools in Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and Eastern region.
Distribution of primary and middle schools by denomination units
| Education units |
|
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| Primary |
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| Middle |
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| ||||||
| Catholic |
|
|
| 832 |
|
|
| 115 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
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| Basel |
|
|
| 674 |
|
|
| 131 |
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|
|
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|
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|
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| Anglican |
|
|
| 193 |
|
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| 50 |
|
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| AME Zion |
|
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| 62 |
|
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| 15 |
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| SDA |
|
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| 44 |
|
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| 7 |
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| Salvation Army |
|
|
| 32 |
|
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| 4 |
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Contributions of the Mission Schools to Ghana
1. Establishment of hospitals and clinics
2. Increase in political consciousness
3. Increased social mobility
4. Introduction of vocational and technical into school curricula
5. Development of vernacular language
6. Conversion of “Heathen African” to the Christian faith for salvation
7. Freed Africans from the worship of divinities and ancestors.
Islamic Education
Entered Gold Coast from North Africa to provide Arabic instruction to Muslim children. Schools were established in Akrofu, Kroboase and Ekotsie. By 1907 the schools had ceased to exist. In 1921, the Ahmadiyya movement which originated from Pakistan established it headquarters in Saltpond in the Central Region of Ghana. The purpose of the Ahmadiyya movement was to enlight all Ahmadis on the traditions of Islam.
Developments in education under the Accelerated Development Plan (1951)
In 1951, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah laid before parliament an Accelerated Development Plan for
Education. Some of the proposals of the Accelerated Development Plan of Education were:
1. A six- year basic primary course for all children of school-going age at public expense.
2. Infant-junior schools were to be known as primary schools and senior primary schools were to be known as middle schools and were to be regarded as part of the post-primary system.
3. Additional day secondary schools were to be provided and certain non-assisted secondary schools were to be assisted.
4. Four secondary-technical schools were to be provided including the conversion of the Government Technical Schools at Takoradi. Technical schools were to be established at Tarkwa, Accra and Sekondi-Takoradi. The middle schools in the northern territories were to increase in number as quickly as possible and more potential teachers were to be provided (Ampadu and Mohammed, 2006).
LESSON FIVE
HISTORICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL TRENDS OF EDUCATION
IN GHANA III
The Education Act of 1961
The aim was to expand the educational system and also recognize the need of teacher training colleges to have good trained teachers to educate in schools. It ensured the African identity by training teachers from the African perspective in an attempt to eradicate western ideas and culture in the minds of Ghanaians. Vernacular was encouraged as a medium of instruction to groom the children before receiving English. Much emphasis was laid on expansion of secondary and postsecondary education, technological and managerial training in technical institutions and universities to meet the needs of expanding industry of the economy.
Kwapong Committee Review of 1966
The committee chaired by Prof. Kwapong recommended. The system of six years of primary education followed four years of middle school course should be replaced by an integrated basic eight-year course for children between the ages of 6 and 14. At the end of the 8-year course, pupils were to proceed to secondary schools through a Common Entrance Examination to be conducted by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC). The introduction of textbook fee at the basic level at the rate of three cedis per pupil in the middle school. There should be considerable expansion in public secondary school system (the total number of secondary schools rose from 103 in 1966 to 108 in 1969). That the duration of secondary education was to be five years leading to school Certificate of GCE “O” Level, followed by two-years sixth form course leading to GCE “A” Level (Ampadu & Mohammed, 2006).
Dzobo Committee Reform of 1974
Dzobo committee was set up to determine the causes of the falling standards of the education system. The committee introduced Junior Secondary School and Senior Secondary School education system. The Ghana Teaching Service (GTS) was changed to Ghana Education Service (GES). The structure of pre-tertiary education at this time was totaling 17years. This generally marginalized the participation of the disadvantaged and poor in education.
Evans Anform Committee Review of 1987
The aim of the 1987 Educational Reform was to: reduce the duration of the pre-university education from the then seventeen years to twelve years, increase access to education at the basic and secondary school levels, improve the quality, efficiency and relevance of pre-university education by expanding the curriculum of both primary and junior secondary school and improve the quality of teaching and learning by increasing school hours and introducing a policy to phase out untrained teachers.
The introduction of Basic Education Certificate Examination (B.E.C.E.) and the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (S.S.S.C.E.) now the West African Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (W.A.S.S.C.E.) was made to replace the General Certificate of Examination (G.C.E.). Education aimed to focus more on practical and technological environment than academic field.
Anamuah-Mensah Committee Review of 2002
The committee was responsible for: the formation of human capital for industrial growth and for ensuring competitiveness in the global economy, ability to make use recent developments in Science and Technology, especially Information and Communication Technology (ICT), radical transformation in the field of work and employment, the preservation of cultural identity and traditional indigenous knowledge and creativity and the reform was intended to ensure 100 percent access to basic education, placing high premium on technical/vocational education and training and improving the quality of instruction and making it flexible enough to accommodate diverse student abilities.
The committee proposed the following. Universal Basic Education shall now be 11 years.
1. 2 years of Kindergarten
2. 6 years of Primary School
3. 3 years of Junior High School (JHS)
After JHS, students may choose to go into different streams at Senior High School (SHS), comprising General Education and Technical, Vocational and Agricultural and Training (TVET) or enter into an apprenticeship scheme with some support from the Government. A new 4-year SHS will offer General Education with electives in General, Business, Technical, Vocational and Agriculture options for entry into a tertiary institution or the job market. Technical, Vocational
and Agricultural Institutions will offer 4-year courses including the core SHS subjects. The medium of instruction in Kindergarten and Lower Primary will be a Ghanaian language and English.
At the basic level, emphasis shall be on Literacy, Numeracy, Creative Arts and Problem-Solving Skills. Teacher Training Colleges will be upgraded and conditions of service of teachers improved, with special incentives for teachers in rural areas. Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) shall be responsible for the infrastructure, supervision and monitoring of Basic and Senior High Schools.
A new National Inspectorate Board (NIB) outside the Ghana Education Service (GES) but under the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports (MOESS) shall be responsible for periodic inspection of Basic and Secondary Schools to ensure quality education. Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) and cost-sharing at the senior high and tertiary levels shall be maintained. Educational services will be widened to include Library and Information, Guidance and Counselling and Distance Education.
The Private Sector will be encouraged to increase its participation in the provision of educational services. Greater emphasis will be put on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Science and Technology. Special Needs Education will be improved at all levels.
What is a Teaching Philosophy?
It is a narrative composition which mirrors an individual’s beliefs and values about teaching and learning. It discusses the teacher’s identity of how he or she teaches others. Teaching philosophy helps a teacher to reflect on his or her teaching and also to stay focus on good days as well as challenging and difficult days. It is a reminder of the teacher’s values and believes so that he or she strives to be consistent in his or her actions in the classrooms and his or her interactions with students. The content of teaching philosophy includes what, why, and how teachers teach. Also, the assignments, assessments, teaching strategies and styles are often found in teaching philosophy statements.
Purpose of Teaching Philosophy
1. Help to explain to students about teacher’s teaching beliefs and practices to support how content is delivered in the classroom.
2. Serves as a professional growth opportunity (Mentor students).
3. Enable teachers to become more focused and enthusiastic about their teaching abilities and values through self-reflection.
Process of Creating a Teaching Philosophy
1. Generate ideas, values and assumptions about teaching and learning related to immediate culture and academic world. E.g. having knowledge about the institution’s mission and vision statements, class size, type of students present etc.
2. Ask questions such as:
a. Why do I teach? (E.g. To help students understand the history of education in Ghana)
b. What do I teach? (E.g. Teaching EDU:151-Foundation of education in Ghana)
c. How do I teach? (E.g. Discussion, group work, collaboration, and lecture)
d. How do I measure my own effectiveness? (E.g. Evaluation through the students)
3. Plan about who may read the philosophy by keeping in mind someone outside of the educational realm. It helps to avoid using academic jargon or abstract principles not known to common readers.
4. Teaching philosophy usually cover:
a. 1-2 pages in length
b. Uses present tense
c. Teaching strategies and methods to help people “see” the classroom environment
d. Is memorable and unique to one’s own teaching experiences.
LESSON SIX
INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC EDUCATION (PRE-TERTIARY CURRICULUM IN
GHANA)
Philosophy of basic education
The philosophy requires the harmonious development of the physical, mental and spiritual capabilities of learners. Ghana’s educational system will help ‘the creation of well-balanced (intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically) individuals with the requisite knowledge, skills, values and aptitudes for self-actualisation and for the socioeconomic and political transformation of the nation’ (Anamuah-Mensah Committee Report, 2002). The educational system is flexible and encourages teachers to engage in innovative teaching to meet the unique needs of learners. Classrooms should be learner-centred where learners are actively engaged in the learning process as a result of teachers adopting appropriate approaches to planning and classroom practice. Teaching and learning approaches and programmes are appropriately differentiated to meet the needs of learners.
Schools shift from an emphasis on summative assessment to formative. This encourages use multiple sources of evidence about teaching and learning, which guides instructional decisions and support each learner’s learnings. Schools should be teacher-centred with its related practices (teacher self-evaluation, performance appraisal/professional review, strong curriculum subject knowledge, use of appropriate pedagogy, accountability, continuing professional development, work-life balance and well-being) adopted so that a culture of trust and high performance in a professional environment is established from which every student benefits (Sherrington, 2016).
Appropriate pedagogies are employed in the curriculum delivery. Because schools are teacher-centred, teachers are able to use pedagogies, equipment, and materials of instruction that transform classrooms from the traditional teacher-centred classrooms to environments that provide opportunities for the use of dialogic learning and teaching approaches. The use of inquiry-oriented learning approaches such as phones, cameras, tablets and computers would be encouraged.
Aim of the basic education
The Aim of the National Pre-tertiary Education is to turn out graduates who are:
1. good problem solvers,
2. have the ability to think creatively and
37
3. have both the confidence and competence to participate fully in the Ghanaian society as responsible local and global citizens.
Structure of the basic education (Pre-tertiary education)
o Key Phase 1 [Foundation level comprising Kindergarten 1 & 2].
o Key Phase 2 [Lower primary level made up of B1 to B3],
o Key Phase 3 [Upper primary level of B4 to B6],
o Key Phase 4 [Junior high school level of B7 to B9], and
o Key Phase 5 [Senior high school level comprising SHS1- SHS3]. Key Phases 1 and 2 constitute Early Years
Subjects offered at each level of basic education
| Level |
| No. of subjects |
| Subject/programmes of study |
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| offered by |
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| student |
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| |||
| KG |
| 7 |
| Language | and | Literacy, | Environmental | Studies, |
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| Mathematics/Science and Technology, Creative Activities |
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| (Music and Dance and Art), Music Dance and Drama, |
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| Physical Development, Psychomotor Skills, (cuts across all |
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| areas) Lower Primary |
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| Lower Primary |
| 8 |
| Literacy (English Language), Mathematics, Ghanaian |
| ||||
| (B – B3) |
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| Language, Creative Arts, Information and Communication |
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| Technology (ICT), Religious and Moral Education, Physical |
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| Education, Natural Sciences |
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| Upper Primary |
| 9 |
| Mathematics, English Language, Integrated Science, |
| ||||
| (B4-B6) |
|
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| Ghanaian Language, Creative Arts, Citizenship Education, |
| ||||
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| Information and Communication Technology (ICT), |
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| Religious and Moral Education, Physical Education |
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| JHS1-3 |
| 11 |
| Mathematics, Ghanaian Language, English, Integrated |
| ||||
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| Science, | Social | Studies, | French, Information and |
| |
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| Communication Technology (ICT), Religious and Moral |
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| |
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| Education, Music and Dance, Basic Design and Technology, |
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| Physical Education |
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| SHS 1-3 Core |
| 5 |
| Mathematics, English Language, Integrated Science, Social |
|
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| Studies, |
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| Information and Communication Technology. Physical |
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| Education |
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| SHS 1-3 |
| 3 |
| Science, General Arts, Business Education, Agricultural |
|
| Programmes |
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| Science, Home Economics, Technical and Vocational |
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| Education, |
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LESSON SEVEN
INTRODUCTION TO POLICES IN BASIC EDUCATION IN GHANA
What is Inclusive education?
Inclusive Education is defined as a process of addressing and responding to the diverse needs of all learners by increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities and reducing exclusion within and from education (UNESCO, 2005). IE involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structure and strategies with a common vision which covers all children of the appropriate age-range and a conviction that it is the responsibility of the state to educate all children.
Inclusive education policy
The Ministry of Education in Ghana in (2015) outlines the following inclusive education policies.
1. Improve and adapt education and related systems and structures to ensure the inclusion of all learners particularly learners with special educational needs.
2. Promote a learner friendly school environment for enhancing the quality of education for all learners.
3. Promote the development of a well-informed and trained human resource cadre for the quality delivery of IE throughout Ghana.
4. Ensure sustainability of inclusive education implementation
Standards and guidelines for the implementation of the IE policy
1. Every child has the right to quality education; thus all children should have equal opportunity to access education.
2. All children can learn and benefit from education.
3. No child should be excluded from, or discriminated against within, education on the grounds of race, colour, sex, language, age, class or social group, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic origin, poverty, disability, birth, or any other status.
4. Changes need to be made throughout the education system and with communities, to ensure that the education system adapts to the learner, rather than expecting the learner adapt to the system.
5. All aspects of education, including the curriculum, teaching methods, assessment, school culture and environments, present opportunities for promoting inclusion.
6. Individual differences among learners are a source of richness and diversity and not a problem.
7. The diversity of needs and patterns of development of children should be addressed through a wide flexible range of responses.
8. Regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating an inclusive society and achieving education for all (Ministry of Education, 2015).
The Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE)
In 1992, Ghana returned to constitutional rule and the 1992 Constitution became the guiding document that spelt out how the country should be governed. The 1992 Constitution of Ghana under article 39(2) demanded that the government should implement a Free Compulsory and Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) Programme for Ghanaian children of school-going age by 2005. The government then adopted a cost-sharing scheme to cover non-tuition fees, under which parents were expected to bear limited expenses such as providing school uniforms and others to their wards.
There were some challenges in the implementation of the FCUBE Programme. These included: Limited access to education especially children of school-going age in the northern parts of Ghana, low girls child attendance in school, inefficient school management to use the human and material resources available to achieve quality education and increase access to education and the quality of teaching and learning in schools was not efficient to equip school children with literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills.
School feeding programme
The motivation for the establishment of School Feeding Programme was garnered by John Agyekum Kufuor, former president of Ghana, during the World Food Prize day in 2011. It was to provide targeted families and their children, including girls, an incentive to attend school. However, in recent years, the idea of using school feeding programmes as a vehicle for agricultural development has also gained momentum. The rationale behind school feeding programmes based on the use of locally-produced food is that they can provide a regular market opportunity and a reliable source of income for smallholder farmers (Sumberg & Sabates-Wheeler, 2011).
School feeding programmes can thus be a powerful instrument for achieving many multi-sectoral benefits such as:
1. education,
2. gender equality,
3. food security,
4. poverty reduction,
5. nutrition and health,
6. agricultural development.
Food, fuel and financial crises engineers the importance of school feeding programmes both as a social safety net for children living in poverty and food insecurity, and as a tool for stimulating local agricultural production and economic opportunities in rural communities.
Educational Implications of School Feeding Programme Alleviate short-term hunger and improve cognition of student
The number of hungry school-age children is unknown, but is likely to be a significant problem in various circumstances. Many factors contribute to hunger in school children: the long distances children have to travel to school, cultural meal practices that include no or small breakfasts or a lack of family time or resources to provide adequate meals to children before and/or during the school day. Simply alleviating this hunger in school children helps them to perform better in school.
Increase enrolments and improve attendance
Children in poor health start school later in life or not at all. A study in Nepal found that the probability of attending school was 5% for stunted children versus 27% for children of normal nutritional status (Moock & Leslie, 1986). In Ghana malnourished children entered school at a later age and completed fewer years of school than better-nourished children (Glewwe & Jacoby, 1994). School Feeding Programme (SFP) can have a positive effect on rates of enrolment and attendance.
Addresses micronutrient deficiencies and improve learning
Deficiencies of iron and iodine are among the most harmful types of malnutrition with regard to cognition. Iron deficiency renders children listless, inattentive and uninterested in learning. Nokes, van den Bosch and Bundy (1998) reported a causal link between iron deficiency anaemia and less than optimal behaviour for learning.
42
Promote community participation
Schools that depend on the community to organize and implement School Feeding Programmes (SFP) offer certain advantages. These advantages include: increasing the contact, and hence communication, between parents and teachers, officials and others; giving parents the opportunity to become more aware of what goes on at schools; and serving to raise the value of education/the school for parents and the whole community.
LESSON EIGHT
INTRODUCTION TO TEACHER EDUCATION IN GHANA
The Concept of Teacher Education
Teacher education is defined as a form of education and training that equips student teachers to be intellectually and professionally proficient and competent to use their knowledge and skills to help other individuals to learn. Teaching practice forms an integral part of teacher education. It is an active professional development programme for teachers in training and a principal component of the curriculum of all Colleges of Education. Teacher education enables student-teachers to gain the required knowledge, attitudes and skills therefore prepare them to function effectively as members of the teaching profession. It also aims at creating the necessary attitudes in student teachers as stakeholders of the teaching profession so that they can approach the challenges posed by the school environment in a very positive manner.
Teacher Education Processes
Akhter and Alam (2016) described three phases of teacher education and training.
1. Pre-service phase
2. Induction phase
3. Continuous professional development phase
Pre-service phase
Pre-service teacher education is a course taken before a teacher can be recruited. This entails a comprehensive education to prepare the student teachers with the necessary content, pedagogical and professional knowledge and skills for teaching. Student teachers in colleges of education and universities who have not completed their respective programmes of study are recognized as pre-service teachers.
Induction phase
The induction phase is where all recruited teachers are provided training and support during the period of teaching. Teachers are seen and recognized as professionals who belong to professional teachers association.
Continuous professional development phase
Continuous professional development (CPD) phase is for teachers already in service. After teachers start working in schools, they receive in-service training on subject based. For example, for teaching English, for teaching science and/or in general topics such as inclusive education and performance-based management at different times during their service. Periodic workshops and seminars on trending issues in education are organized for teachers to build their capacities.
Models of Teacher Education
1. Concurrent Model
2. Consecutive Model
Concurrent model
In the concurrent model student teachers study academic courses alongside education courses throughout the duration of the course. Student teachers take courses in education and in his/her major teaching subject area simultaneously for a four-year period. Student teachers are exposed to the general theory and practice of education by lecturers regarding the use of appropriate methods, strategies, techniques and resources for teaching their special subjects.
Consecutive Model
In a consecutive model, candidates obtain a first degree, HND or a master’s degree in Sciences or Arts after which they enroll to study education for one year to receive their Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PDGE) or Professional Diploma in Education (PDE). It is important to note that the content of courses is same for both model.
Role of Teachers in National Development
Teachers have a vital role in nation building because the future is totally in their hands. They choose to be the fortune builders of the country and if you really want to know how important teachers are for their country, try imagining a nation without them. It will only be a nation of absolute chaos where nobody would step up to make sure the kids get the best education and the knowledge to sustain a good and healthy life. The nation will no longer be able to progress and the population will be sick. Here are a few characteristics of the roles that our teachers play every single day.
Making the children ready for a challenging life
It starts at a very early age; the teachers take the kids away from their parents for a few hours and teach them in a totally different environment. Teachers try and make the environment as friendly as possible, but it is still different from the environment at home. Knowingly or unknowingly, teachers prepare the kids for unknown environment which they might have to face in their lives.
Literacy and wisdom
The teachers not only make the child literate so that he/she can earn enough to have a normal lifestyle, they also provide words of wisdom every day which shape the personality of the child. Many children are influenced by their teachers more than the parents. A teacher is mostly selfless and believes in screening whatever information he/she can to make the kid wiser than yesterday.
A friend, philosopher and guide
Today we can see that teachers have moved on from the basic image of a strict teacher, they have become much more for their students. They provide a friendly shoulder to cry on when the kid is in a problem, they tell about the philosophies of life so that the child could take lessons and apply to his/her own life and they guide the child to follow the right path. The teachers have the courage to push the kid to do what they want to, even if it has never been done before.
Well-wishers
No other job makes a person worried if a child’s parent is divorced, a drunk or a wife abuser. Teachers are the ones who have full knowledge of the child’s life, the environment back home, his mindset and his capabilities. They always try and strike a balance between all of these things and make sure that the kid’s future doesn’t get affected in a bad way.
Nation builder
A nation comprises children way more than adults. The children are the future and the teachers are the ones who are getting them ready for their task. With optimum education, wisdom, exposure, and resources, the teachers are building the nation for tomorrow brick by brick and the foundation is so solid that the nation will only grow upwards.
LESSON NINE
THE STRUCTURE OF THE NEW TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN
Rationale for the New Teacher Education Programme
The National Teacher Education Curriculum Framework (NTECF) stipulates that the new B.ed.
programme will:
1. fully prepare student teachers to teach the School Curriculum, in particular, English, mathematics, and science, concentrating on the relevant subject and pedagogical knowledge.
2. equip student teachers to develop pupils’ languages (Ghanaian and English) and literacy so all can access the curriculum.
3. give higher status to practical teaching experience through supported and assessed teaching in school.
4. deepen student teachers’ curriculum knowledge through introducing level specialisms
(KG-B3, B4-B6, B7-B9 & SHS1-SHS3).
5. widen the focus of assessment to include in-school learning and assignments as well as examinations, with students being assessed against the Teachers’ Standards.
6. emphasize a more interactive, learner-focused approach to training, modelling good teaching.
7. be explicit in addressing vital cross-cutting issues: equity and inclusivity, assessment, core skills, professional values, action research, and reflection.
8. ensure these essential issues have shaped the curriculum framework, which is underpinned by the National Teachers’ Standards as the determiner of what a ‘competent’ teacher is.
9. ensure that every child’s right to competent teachers who are able to support learning and progress is fulfilled.
STRUCTURE FOR THE NEW TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME
YEAR ONE (Beginning Teaching)
During year one, tutors support student teachers with varied backgrounds and experiences from SHS to appreciate teaching. This is done by tutors introducing student teachers to: Nature and core knowledge of subjects, STS experience, Cross-cutting issues (inclusion, equity, core skills, ICT), School curriculum and Approaches to teaching and learning.
YEAR TWO (Developing Teaching)
Under year two student teachers go through some courses, carry out small-scale classroom enquiring under the guidance of mentor (STS) and identify and assess barriers to learning for learners.
YEAR THREE (Embedding Teaching)
Under year three, student teachers go through some courses, co-plan and co-teach groups of learners and whole class, carry out small-scale classroom enquiries, provide evidence of working towards meeting the NTS and prepare for final STS (internship) in year four.
YEAR FOUR (Extending Teaching)
During year four, student teachers go to STS internship in semester one. Student teachers will return in semester two to complete some courses. By the end of year four, student teachers will: plan, teach and assess their learners independently and consistently. Student teacher will also carry out extensive action research project work and also provide evidence of meeting the NTS in full.
COMPARISON OF DBE AND B.ED. PROGRAMME
Diploma in Basic Education |
| Bachelor of Education Programme |
Programme |
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o Poor development of numeracy |
| Promote development of numeracy and literacy skills |
and literacy skills among pupils |
| among pupils in basic education. |
in basic education. |
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o There is insufficient support for |
| Sufficient time is given for teachers to integrate critical |
teachers to integrate critical |
| thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration |
thinking, creativity, |
| and problem-solving skills in the school curriculum. |
communication, collaboration |
|
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and problem-solving skills in |
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curriculum. |
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o There is a low level of teacher |
| High level of teacher participation in decision- |
participation in decision-making |
| making (Test item development) |
(Eg. Test item development) |
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KEY POLICIES INFLUENCING TEACHER EDUCATION IN GHANA Demonstration/Partner Schools
All teacher training institutions should have high-quality demonstration/partner schools for teacher preparation. Teachers in these schools should receive special training and appropriate incentives.
Languages
Review and strengthen the policy for teaching and learning in Ghanaian Languages and English. The need to consider how all languages will have trained teachers to teach. There is the need to consider requiring all students to study two Ghanaian languages as was the case in the past.
Specialism Pathways
Introduce Specialism pathways for: early grades, Primary, JHS and SHS.
Continuing Professional Development (CPD)
Implementing rigorous CPD structure for mentors, tutors, and others with appropriate incentives.
Quality Assurance
Institute a system of quality assurance for Teacher Education in schools and training institutions. The role of the National Inspectorate Board, National Teaching Council, and NAB will be pertinent here.
Raising the profile of teaching
Implement career structure and associated incentives to bring the right people into teaching, shape them to be the best to fully meet the country’s specific needs, and continuously develop them to give their best once they go into the schools. Raise the entry requirements and the condition for entry into teacher education as well as the duration of training at the college of education level (NTECF).
Four Pillars of Teacher Education The essential knowledge, skills and understanding
necessary for effective teaching
❑ Subject and curriculum knowledge
❑ Literacy studies (Ghanaian languages and English)
❑ Pedagogic knowledge
❑ Supported teaching in school
Secure content knowledge for specialism and subjects is the key to teaching the school curriculum.
Language is the key to success in education and life. Getting this right is the most critical issue for our children’s future and for education in Ghana.
Knowledge of instructional and assessment strategies is key to supporting the learning and progress of all pupils.
Extended, guided and assessed teaching which enables student teachers to apply their knowledge and the key to improving their teaching.
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➢ Equity and inclusivityCultural and social linguistic diversity in Ghana is manifest in all classrooms. Understanding this is key to addressing barriers to learning, and teaching for diversity.
➢ Professional values and The key to professionalism, the development of professional
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➢ Assessment strategiesAssessment literacy, understanding the principles and practices of assessment and testing, is key to effective planning for differentiation and making provision for all pupils in the ages, subjects and contexts being taught.
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| Core skills |
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| Assessing student |
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| assignments and examination results, is key to assessment having a positive |
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| impact on student teachers’ progress to being effective new teachers. |
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| Key to effective training and support in school and in college is: a rigorous |
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LESSON TEN
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
The use of information and communication technology (ICT) in schools has increased dramatically in recent years (Orlando, 2014). This has been driven by the recognition that students need to be skilled in the use of these technologies in order to participate effectively in an increasingly digital world (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012).
What is technology?
The term “technology” refers to advancements in the methods and tools one uses to solve problems or achieve a goal. It is also an idea, practice, or object that helps individuals to form a network (Rogers, 2003). In the classroom, technology encompasses all kinds of tools from low-tech pencil, paper, and chalkboard, to the use of presentation software (PowerPoint), or high-tech tablets, online collaboration and conferencing tools, and more.
What is social coherence?
Social coherence is a state in which groups of people such as families and friends, large organisations and others interact and cooperate to achieve a common purpose. A good social coherence leads to social networks, a sense of identity, and commitment to a common goal (Dragolov, Ignacz, Lorenz, Delhey & Boehnke (2013).
Misconceptions and myths about the use of technology
A report by SCHOOLPAD (2013) outlined the following misconception about the use of technology.
It is difficult and made for technology people
Most people feel that technology tools are too complex and made for use by technology people.
This is due to the lack of exposure to such tools.
It adds to the work and teachers even have to work from home
Most marketers selling education technology products give the add that technology works “Anytime, Anywhere” without giving a proper explanation hence teachers feel that since the product can be accessed from anywhere and at anytime, school will start giving them more work and they will now have to do it for home.
It could replace a teacher and hence it is better not to use it
Till today there has been no technology in the world that could completely replace a teacher from the classroom and it’s impossible because one feels that teachers still remain to be a fundamental part whenever it comes to classroom learning.
It is too expensive
People have the notion that technological gadgets are too expensive to afford. But with change in business models, it’s now affordable to adopt good technological gadgets at affordable cost.
Technology fixes all of one's or students’ problems
Well… not really. Classroom technology is a tool, just like a hammer. Hammers are really, really useful. If one collects data about hammer usage, one would probably be able to prove that using hammer leads to the most success in home improvement, above any other tools. But that doesn’t mean that hammer is appropriate for every job.
Technology is dangerous, so one has to limit access to everything
Yes, technology is dangerous but so are most tools. The danger comes from misuse and poor choices. Limiting access to some things is reasonable. For example, you wouldn’t want to open up your entire tool shed to a young child. Likewise, you wouldn’t want to open up all the technology to students who have not been properly trained. However, students do have access to technology at home, and quite often their misuse of technology at home creates problems during the school day.
Technology is less meaningful than traditional learning
A classroom demonstrating best technology practices would have students collaborating and sharing, not drooling and staring.
Barriers to the use of technology
1. Lack of teacher time, training, and support.
2. Limited access
3. High cost of equipment
4. Lack of vision or rationale for technology use
5. Low effectiveness
6. Lack of technology policy
7. Maintenance and technical problems
8. Low or lack of connectivity
Effects/abuses of technology on societal values and ethics On the individual level
1. Loss of dignity and genuineness,
2.Threat to freedom and the right to privacy. On the economic and social levels
1. Growth of large information businesses like credit bureau and telecommunication companies.
2. Loss of integrity of companies or institutions.
Appropriate use of technology for teaching and learning Improves engagement
When technology is integrated into lessons, students are expected to be more interested in the subjects they are studying. For instance, delivering teaching through online learning resources. Technology encourages more active participation in the learning process which can be hard to achieve through a traditional lecture environment.
Improves knowledge retention
Students who are engaged and interested in things they are studying are expected to have better knowledge retention. As mentioned before, technology can help to encourage active participation in the classroom which also is a very important factor for increased knowledge retention.
Encourages individual learning
No one learns in the same way because of different learning styles and different abilities. Technology provides great opportunities for making learning more effective for everyone with different needs. For example, students can learn at their own speed, review difficult concepts or skip ahead if they need to. Access to the Internet gives students access to a broad range of resources to conduct research in different ways, which in turn can increase engagement.
Encourages collaboration
Students can practice collaboration skills by getting involved in different online activities. For instance, working on different projects by collaborating with others on forums or by sharing documents on their virtual learning environments.
Students can learn useful life skills through technology
By using technology in the classroom, both teachers and students can develop skills essential for the 21st century. Students can gain the skills they will need to be successful in the future. Modern learning is about collaborating with others, solving complex problems, critical thinking developing different forms of communication etc.
Benefits for teachers
With countless online resources, technology can help improve teaching. Teachers can use different apps or trusted online resources to enhance the traditional ways of teaching and to keep students more engaged.
LESSON ELEVEN
SCHOOL-COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP
What is a school?
Reimer (1971) defines school as an “institution which require all time attendance of specific age groups in teacher supervised classrooms for the study of a graded curriculum” (p.36). It is also generally seen as a place for acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
What is community?
Community is defined as a common cultural heritage, language, social interactions and shared interests and vision by individuals or organisations within or transcending local boundaries (Sanders, 2006). Community in terms of people and organisation is not constrained by geographical boundaries. This suggests that the common heritage, shared interests, language, and social interactions of individuals or organisations from different geographical areas bind such individuals or organisations to as one community.
What is partnership?
Naidu (2008) defined partnership as an association of two or more people in an undertaking, sharing risks and profits. A partnership does not entail an exploitative relationship but rather provides fair and sound grounds for each party to benefit from the deal.
What is a school-community partnership?
Sanders (2007) defined school-community partnerships as the connections between schools and individuals, organisations, and businesses that are forged to directly or indirectly promote students; social, emotional, physical, and intellectual development. School- community partnership aims at making school and community play their roles and share in the use of their facilities to ensure effective management of school.
This in turn can improve school programmes and school climate, provide family services and support, increase parents‘ skills and leadership, connect families with others in the school and in the community, and help teachers with their work. This relationship helps to improve the life of the school (Downey, 2002) and helps all youngsters succeed in school and in later life.
Rationale for SCP
Lemmer (2007) indicated the following as factors for the establishment of school-community partnerships.
1. the need for additional resources,
2. improved learner academic achievement and social development,
3. strengthening of school programmes,
4. support for community development and joint initiatives to deal with social ills such as:
a. poverty,
b. drug and alcohol abuse,
c. violence and HIV and AIDS.
5. Higher attendance rates
Types of school-community partnership
Parents and families
Partnerships between schools, parents, and families have supported schools‟ activities and ensured that learners are assisted in their after-school tasks (homework activities) (Adams & Smith, 2003). This is the most common partnership taking place in South Africa today because of the advocacy from the SASA (Republic of South Africa, 1996). Bridging the gap that exists between home and schools is also achievable through parental and family involvement in education.
Government departments, non-profit and faith-based organizations
NGOs and other stakeholders have also largely contributed to schools’ initiatives to deal with these challenges. Other departments such as the Department of Education and the Department of Social Development have worked with schools and contributed to policy development regarding issues of HIV and AIDS (Khanare, 2009).
Universities and Research Institutes
Research institutes and universities may present research reports on other schools’ and communities’ experiences of dealing with issues like poverty and schooling as well as violence in schools (Corrigan, 2000). Knowledge from these studies may be used to bridge the gap between theory and practice in schools.
Principles of school-community partnership
Bray (2003) provides seven principles of developing partnership
1. Mutual trust between school and community; goodwill and interest for helping children.
2. Long-term commitment, continue providing support for the partnership.
3. Clear and mutually accepted goals.
4. Focus on both near and far, big and small pictures
5. Nurturing; caring and encouraging the development of partnership.
6. Relationships between individuals as well as institutions.
7. Genuine partnership involves much more than the mere contribution of finances.
Promoting a healthy school-community partnership
Blank, Jacobson, and Melaville (2012) note six key strategies that could be used by schools to promote a healthy school-community partnership.
1. Ensure that all partners share a common vision. The entire community and all involved partners should agree on the same goals and expectations.
2. Establish formal relationships and collaborative structures to engage stakeholders.
3. Initiating and sustaining stakeholder participation often requires creating structured opportunities to all stakeholders.
4. Encourage open dialogue about challenges and solutions facing schools by involving stakeholders to engage honestly with each other to solve problems.
5. Engage partners in the use of data; sharing data enables all stakeholders to understand where things stand and hold each other accountable for making measurable progress.
6. Create and empower central office capacity at the district level to sustain community school work; continue capacity can be created through establishing a high-level management position within a district’s central office or through creating an office dedicated to supporting a community school agenda.
7. Leverage community resources and funding streams by community schools capitalizing on the financial assets of community partners and funding streams to support programmes and activities aligned with their common vision.
Importance of school-community partnership
1. Members of the community get to know the school at hand.
2. Helps members to raise questions, obtain information, express ideas, consider proposals, and take action on pressing issues.
3. Helps community members to better understand the type of school needed.
4. It provides better opportunities for closer cooperation with local government agencies and community organizations, which have an interest in education and public welfare.
5. It helps to bring about the increased use of community resources in an educational programmes. This ensures the integration of school and community relations.
The role of the student-teachers in the society
1. The student-teacher makes visits to homes to discuss with parents problems facing their wards.
2. They offer suggestions to parents and guardians regarding the academic progress of their wards.
3. They settle disputes among pupils.
4. They support communities by taking part in communal labour.
LESSON TWELVE
What is a career?
A career is a lifetime journey of building and making good use of one’s skills, knowledge, and experiences. It is the sum total of all events and relationships in our lives: families, friends, education, work, and leisure activities. Sullivan and Baruch (2009) defined a career as an individual’s work-related and other relevant experiences, both inside and outside of organizations that form a unique pattern over the individual’s lifespan.
Job, Occupation & Career
Job
It refers to the specific position in which a person is employed. For example; Chief of surgery at Korle-Bu teaching hospital, Secretary of Akrokerri College of Education, etc.
Occupation
It is a wide range of jobs that have similar characteristics, such as types of skills or responsibilities. Here, a person can work at his/her occupation for different employers. For example, Medical officer, Teacher, Carpenter, etc.
Career
It is the body of work; all jobs and occupations and life experiences that a person experiences during his/her lifetime
What is a career path?
A career path is defined as growth in skills and responsibilities, and/or moves into new parts of an organization.
It also refers to a smaller group of jobs within a career cluster that use similar skills. Each career cluster contains several career paths. For example; the Teaching profession as a career cluster includes:
Pupil-teacher -> Basic School Teacher -> College Tuitor/Lecturer -> University Lecturer
o One can start in a lower-level job in a career path and, with more education and experience, move up within that path.
o A career path helps one to find out how one might move from one job to another within a career cluster.
Career path in computer engineering
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What is lifelong learning?
Lifelong learning is about acquiring and updating all kinds of abilities, interests, knowledge and qualifications from the pre-school years to post retirement which promotes the development of knowledge and competences that will enable adaptation to the knowledge-based society and also valuing all forms of learning (Soni, 2012). Lifelong learning is more than training or continuing education. It must support multiple learning opportunities including exploring conceptual understanding as well as narrowing to practical application of knowledge, ranging over different settings such as academic, informal lifelong learning, and professional and industrial training.
Benefit of lifelong learning
Nordstrom (2006) outlines 10 benefits of lifelong learning as:
1. Lifelong learning helps fully develop natural abilities.
2. Lifelong learning opens the mind.
3. Lifelong learning creates a curious, hungry mind.
4. Lifelong learning increases our wisdom.
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5. Lifelong learning makes the world a better place.
6. Lifelong learning helps us to adapt to change.
7. Lifelong learning helps us find meaning in our lives.
8. Lifelong learning keeps us involved as active contributors to society.
9. Lifelong learning helps us make new friends and establish valuable relationships.
10. Lifelong learning leads to an enriching life of self-fulfillment.
Limitation to lifelong learning
1. The acquisition of certain essential skills should not be delayed until they are needed because the time to learn them may be not available or the environment may be too dangerous for safe learning processes.
2. Learning on demand is task driven and therefore may be limited to exposing users to isolated pieces of knowledge while providing only limited support for learning essential principles.
3. Learners may encounter difficulties in decontextualizing knowledge so that it can be used in new settings.
4. Whereas learning on demand may be well suited for evolutionary extensions of a knowledge base, it may not support substantial restructuring, because the additional features learned occur only in the neighborhood of what learners already know.
Types of career paths in education
1. Early childhood/kindergarten teacher
2. Basic school teacher
3. Senior high school teacher
4. Special education teacher
5. College/university lecturer, professor
6. Coach/trainer/consultant
7. Child care center director
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