COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE NOTES
UNIT 1
ACADEMIC DISCOURSE
The Concept/Definition of Communication
*Communication is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.
*Communication is the act of transferring information from one place, person, or group to another. Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message, and a recipient. These include our emotions, the cultural situation, the medium used to communicate, and even our location.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Forms/Types of communication
Types of communication can be grouped under these categories:
*Communication type based on channel
*Communication type based on style and purpose
Communication type based on channels of communication will give two subcategories namely:
-Verbal
-Non-verbal
Verbal communication is sub-categorized into:
-Oral
-Written forms
Verbal Communication; Spoken and Written
>This involves the use of language and words for passing on the intended message
>Generally, Verbal Communication means communication in the form of spoken words only but, in the context of types of communication, verbal communication can be in the spoken or the written form
>Written Communication involves any kind of exchange of information in the written form. For example, e-mails, texts, memos, letters, reports, SMS, posts on social media platforms, documents, handbooks, posters, flyers, etc.
>Oral Communication employs the spoken words, either direct or indirect as a communication channel. It could be made on a channel that passes information in only one form i.e. sound. You could converse either face to face, or over the phone, or via voice notes or chat rooms, etc. Classroom oral presentation and discussions, dramatization, poetry recital are examples.
Non-Verbal Communication
In this type of communication, messages are relayed without any transmission of words. The messages here are wordless. This form of communication mainly aides verbal communication. It supplements verbal communication with gestures, body language, symbols, and expressions.
Types of Non-Verbal Communication
Improving Non-verbal communication
>Maintain eye contact with the speaker
>Smile and show interest
>Use a tone of voice that matches your message
>Lean forward to show the speaker your interest
>Nod to show that you agree
>Shake your head to show that you don’t agree
2.Communication type based on style and purpose
This type of classification gives sub-categories formal and informal communication.
Formal communication refers to an exchange of information officially. The flow of communication is controlled and is a deliberate effort. This makes it possible for the information to reach the desired target without any hindrance. The following are types:
Vertical: The information or data flows up and down the organizational structure.
Horizontal: This is the communication between two similar levels of the organization.
Diagonal: This is the communication across the cross-functional levels of employees from various departments of the organization.
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Examples of barrier to effective communication
1. Misconceptions people have about communication: These misconceptions are barriers to effective communication.
2. Environmental (Physical) barrier – nature of the environment like noise (physical noise – outside noise, psychological noise – inattentiveness, written noise – bad handwriting, visual noise – late arrival of e.g. students), poor lighting, poor ventilation, distance, distractions, time, space, inability to see and interpret non-verbal cues like gestures, posture, and general body language can make communication less effective.
9. Technological barriers – message not delivered due to technical failure like internet failure, failure of equipment, etc.
10. Physiological barriers – message in an internal report not received due to blindness – audience not getting what is being said.
11. Gender barriers - Gender barriers to communication can incite problems in class and in the school. Societal stereotypes assumed gender roles, and interpersonal differences can contribute to a communication gap between the sexes. Gender barriers arise because men and women have different ways of thinking and communication.
The chart below shows other communication barriers
DEALING WITH BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. How to overcome physical Barriers
>Have appropriate seating arrangements
>Ensure visibility and audibility
>Minimise visual/oral disturbances
>Use appropriate non-verbal cues
>Ensure proper lighting
>Remove physical detractors
2. How to overcome attitude barriers
>Listen to others
>Clarify confusion
>Stay calm and be patient
3. How to overcome emotional barriers
>Be conscious of your feelings.
>Communicate your feelings and try to control them.
4. How to overcome cultural barriers
>Get help from experts
>Work together with people in the culture more cohesively and productively
5. How to overcome language barriers
>Learn the language
>Use simple language
>Use symbols and charts to explain
>Listen actively
>Be grammatically and sociolinguistically competent
6. How to overcome gender barriers
>Bridge gap in gender
>Be patient and have an understanding of the genders
>Avoid gender stereotypes
7. How to avoid technology barriers
>Make sure network is available
>Test material before use
MISCONCEPTIONS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Examples of Misconceptions of Communication
>Everyone is a communication practitioner because he or she can speak well or has a knack for writing. It is the notion that training is not necessary for one to become a good communication practitioner. We need to be trained to have the skills in communication.
>Communication is a verbal process. This is also not true because communication is both verbal and non-verbal.
>Spreading information is a one-sided effort that delivers what you want to say to an audience. Communication is a two-sided relationship where both you and your audience learn from each other.
>Human communication does not break down. Communication can break down.
>Communication is simply the transfer of information. This is not true.
>Communication is a good thing. Communication is a tool, which is neither a good nor a bad thing. The way we use communication determines if it is a good thing or bad thing. We use communication for both positive and negative purposes.
1. What are barriers to effective communication?
2. State and explain at least five barriers to effective communication.
3. Discuss four ways of overcoming these barriers
4. Examine any five misconceptions of effective communication.
UNIT 2
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE SKILLS
ACADEMIC LISTENING
Definition:
>Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communicative process.
>Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body.
>In other words, it means being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages.
>Your ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to which you pay attention and focus.
>Listening implies decoding (i.e., translating the symbols into meaning) and interpreting the messages correctly in the communication process.
Listeners must have the ability to:
-decode the message
-apply a variety of strategies and interactive processes to make meaning
-respond to what is said.
#The most basic and powerful way to connect to another person is to listen.
Academic Listening:
>Academic Listening (AL) involves attending to and comprehending spoken texts in academic settings, such as lectures, tutorials, small group discussions, presentations, among others.
>Academic Listening involves the reception and understanding of spoken material with an educational purpose.
Forms of academic listening
-Academic lectures,
-Debates,
-Seminar conversations,
-Workshops,
-Presentations, and
-Group discussions, etc.
Difference between hearing and listening
>Hearing refers to the process of sound waves striking the eardrum and causing vibration. It is a physical process that, provided you do not have any hearing problems, happens automatically.
>Listening, however, requires focus and concentrated effort, both mental and sometimes physical as well. Listening occurs when the brain reconstructs these electrochemical impulses and then gives them meaning.
Types of listening
Generally, there are many types of listening (about 5) but for this course, we will discuss two main types of listening - the foundations of all listening sub-types.
1. Discriminative Listening
2. Comprehensive Listening
Other types of listening are:
-Informational listening
-Critical listening
-Therapeutic listening
1. Discriminative listening
>Discriminative listening is when the listener interprets and assigns meaning to sound rather than to words or phrases. In discriminative listening, the listener interprets the differences and nuances of sounds.
>The listener is sensitive to attributes including rate, volume, pitch, and emphasis in speaking. This type of listening is the most basic form of listening. We learn this form of listening early in life.
>Recognition and interpretation of accents are an example of discriminative listening
2. Comprehensive Listening
>Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that are being communicated.
>Comprehensive listening involves understanding the thoughts, ideas, and message. This type of listening requires that the listener understands the language and vocabulary.
>Comprehensive listening builds on discriminative listening. If you can’t understand the sound, you will not be able to interpret language. Mismatches in vocabulary can disrupt comprehension.
>Informational listening is a type of goal-based listening that requires the listener to interpret verbal and non-verbal cues to learn. Students in a lecture hall are often in informational listening mode.
>The listener typically is a less active participant in the listening process. One non-verbal signal of informational listening mode is notes taking. In this form of listening, the listener focuses on understanding the speaker’s message, postponing critical thinking and processing until later.
>In the corporate environment, this type of listening is often used when listening to reports, briefings, and speeches.
>Critical listening focuses on evaluating and analyzing information. This is a more active form of listening that includes evaluating and making judgments.
>The listener is interacting with the information in order to make a judgment.
Sub-category of listening
Note-taking Tips Practice: How to take effective notes while listening. Listening for and understanding new vocabulary. Listening to a complex description
Noticing Attitude and Opinion: Listening to understand more difficult language, Practicing listening skills for lectures.
Lecture Orientation: Listening for theme words and examples, Prediction skills for listening. Using clues to understand lectures. Listening closely to presentations.
Listening for signposting language. Focusing on the language in a lecture.
Lecture Formalizing notes: Asking questions, Pre-lecture preparation, Post lecture preparation. participation. Understanding synopsis
Active Listening skills
Active listening involves listening with all senses as well as giving full attention to the speaker. it is important that the ‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be listening - otherwise, the speaker may conclude that what they are talking about is uninteresting to the listener.
That is the listener fully concentrates on what is being said rather than just passively ‘hearing’ the message of the speaker.
An active listener should do the following:
Effective Listening Skills
Effective listening skills are the ability to actively understand the information provided by the speaker, and display interest in the topic discussed by providing the speaker with feedback to indicate that the message is understood.
Effective listening requires both deliberate efforts and a keen mind.
Principles of effective listening
1. Stop Talking, listen.
When somebody else is talking listen to what they are saying, do not interrupt, talk over them or finish their sentences for them. Stop, just listen. When the other person has finished talking, you may need to clarify to ensure you have received their message accurately.
2. Prepare Yourself to Listen
Relax and focus on the speaker Put other things and thoughts out of mind and concentrate on the messages that are being communicated
3. Put the Speaker at Ease
Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage them to continue. Maintain eye contact but don’t stare – show you are listening and making meaning of what is being said.
4. Remove Distractions
Focus on what is being said. Avoid unnecessary interruptions such as fidgeting, etc. These behaviours disrupt the listening process and send messages to the speaker that you are bored or distracted.
5. Empathise
Try to understand the other person’s point of view. Look at issues from their perspective. Let go of any preconceived ideas. By having an open mind, we can fully with the speaker. If the speaker says something that you disagree with then wait and construct an argument to counter what is said but keep an open mind to the views and opinions of others.
6. Listen for Ideas – Not Just Words
You need to get the whole picture, not just isolated bits and pieces. With proper concentration, letting go of distractions, and focus this becomes easier.
Listening strategies
Two processes are involved in listening strategies.
1.Top-down listening
2.Bottom-up listening
These processes are complementary; listening for only the big picture but not the details is as ineffective as trying to understand every single word your lecturer says.
1.Top-down listening
>Top-down listening uses background knowledge and contextualizes words to aid comprehension.
>Top-down listening happens when we use a previously established schema to make sense of what we are listening to. We already know a fair amount about the topic, and the story or information
>Top-down Academic Listening strategies
-Before the lecture, review and predict lecture topics.
- Review assigned material
- Consider how new information will relate to previous lectures
-During the lecture, identify the pattern of organization (i.e., problem/solution, literature review, etc.).
-Note the number of main topics being covered and how they are related
-Listen for phrases that introduce, summarise, or shift topics
-After the lecture, continue to engage with the topic.
-Review your notes for any information that is incomplete
2.Bottom-up listening
>Bottom-up listening uses sounds, words, and other small units to create meaning.
> Bottom-up listening happens when we understand language sound by sound or word by word, with less use of background knowledge.
Bottom-up Academic Listening strategies
-Focus on stressed words.
-Listen for longer, louder words (usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs). These words carry the most important information.
-Pay attention to repeated terms and pauses.
-Take these as cues for possible key points in the lecture
-Avoid trying to understand every word. In spoken language, not all words are important nor are they always grammatical.
Common Barriers to Listening
1.Trying to listen to more than one conversation at a time.
2.Concentrating on the communicator rather than the message
3.Not focusing and being easily distracted
4.Feeling unwell or tired, hungry or thirsty
5.Identifying rather than empathizing
6.Sympathizing rather than empathizing
7.Having preconceived ideas or bias
Importance of Academic Listening
-Effective listening can help you become a better student.
-Effective listening can help you become more effective in your interpersonal relationships.
-Effective listening can lead others to perceive you as more intelligent individual.
-Effective listening can help you become a stronger public speaker.
-Good listening allows us to demonstrate that we are paying attention to the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of the other person.
-Develops patience and tolerance in the listener in the classroom
-Effective listening skills create positive classroom relationships, which influence our opinions and responsiveness to one another.
Self-study questions:
1.What is Academic Listening?
2.In two sentences, differentiate between listening and hearing.
3.What is Academic Listening?
4.List and explain any five active listening skills.
5.Briefly explain the following listening skills:
i.Top-down strategy
ii. Bottom-up strategy
6.Explain any five principles of listening.
7.List any four barriers to effective listening and briefly explain them.
8.Advance five reasons to justify why Academic Listening is important.
ACADEMIC SPEAKING
What is Academic Speaking?
>Speaking is the ability to engage in conversation or express one’s thoughts and feelings in spoken language or the active use of language to express meaning.
>Academic speaking involves knowing how structures are used in academic contexts. It is similar to academic writing, presented in standard language, linear (orderly presented), explicit, and has one central point.
>Academic spoken style is similar in many ways because it is formal, explicit, hedged, and responsible. However, it is less complex and objective than written language.
>It is planned towards an educational goal and differs from daily conversational and transactional speaking because it is normally used for formal academic presentations, seminars, or conferences.
Types of Speaking
1.Interactive – It involves face-to-face conversation, phone calls (chance to ask for clarification, request)
2.Partially Interactive – Giving speech, check comprehension from audience’s faces)
3.Non – Interactive – Recording, performing in a play, singing, reciting a poem)
Features of Academic Speaking
-It is formal. It avoids the use of colloquial words and expressions.
-It is explicit. The speaker should make it clear to the listener how the various parts are related (E.g. using different signaling words).
-It is precise. Facts and figures should be given precisely in an academic context.
-Speech is hedged. The stance taken on a particular subject or the strength of the claim should be cautious.
Importance of Speaking in Academic Communication
1.It equips students with the structure of speech, the rationale, and focus for effective communication.
2.It enables equal participation amongst students
3.It ensures effective presentation
Academic Speaking Strategies
-Model proper speaking
-Be explicit
-Use appropriate or effective language
-Inform students about their tasks
-Be accurate
-Organize the text
-Provide feedback
-Use the voice and eliminate nervous gestures
-Grab attention
Self-study questions :
1. Define academic speaking.
2. (a) State any two types of academic speaking.
(b) Discuss three features of academic speaking.
3. (a) Mention any two importance of speaking in academic communication.
(b) Explain any three academic speaking strategies.
UNIT 3
DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS
DEVELOPING READING SKILLS
Teaching reading in the classroom needs special attention because it enhances language acquisition, provides a good model for writing, and stimulates discussion.
It also helps learners improve their vocabulary (Grabe, 2002).
Generally, reading improves students' overall language proficiency and academic performance.
Definition of Academic Reading
Academic reading involves layers of asking questions and reflecting on relationships among parts of the text.
According to Kurland (2000a), Critical reading refers to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading, which involves reflecting on the validity of what one has read in light of his prior knowledge and understanding of the world.
One purpose of academic readings is to give students exposure to different viewpoints and ideas. Academic texts are written by professionals in a given field and edited by the authors' peers and often take years to publish.
Some examples of academic texts are:
-Articles: (An academic text that offers results of research and development that can either affect the academic community or provide relevance to nation-building)
-Conference paper: (Papers presented in scholastic conferences and may be revised as articles for possible publication in scholarly journals).
-Reviews (An academic text that provides evaluation or reviews of works published in scholarly journals)
-Theses/Dissertations (These are personally researched written by a candidate for a college or university).
Fundamentals of Academic Reading
Content and Style of Academic Text
Types of Academic Reading
1.Intensive Reading
2.Extensive reading
3.Scanning
4.Skimming
1.Intensive Reading
It is reading for a high degree of comprehension and retention over a long period of time.
Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading calls attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like.
Intensive Reading is the close reading that is undertaken for academic or for professional work. Intensive Reading is the one we do for examination or as teachers when they intend to teach the information to students.
Advantages of Intensive Reading
Limitations of Intensive Reading
2.Extensive Reading
Extensive Reading refers to reading widely with the purpose of getting information to enrich your personal knowledge.
Extensive reading involves reading large quantities of material, directly and fluently. It may include reading simply for pleasure or reading technical, scientific, or professional material.
Characteristics of Extensive Reading
-Reading is individual and silent.
-Reading speed is usually.
-The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.
-Reading is its own reward.
Advantages of Extensive Reading
6.It expands students' sight vocabulary.
7.It helps students acquire "incidental" grammatical competence - that is, it may be acquired even though it was not directly taught.
8.It increases reading comprehension.
9.It improves students' overall language competence.
10.Students become more prepared for further academic courses because they have read large quantities.
Challenges of Extensive Reading
1.May be costly and time-consuming if materials are already not available.
2.It may be difficult to keep students challenged to read more difficult texts as the program continues.
3.Reading each student's journals and reports can be very time-consuming for teachers.
4.Some teachers may feel that time spent on Extensive Reading will take away from time that could be spent on learning language skills.
3.Scanning
Role of the Student in Scanning
4.Skimming
Skimming is a quick reading to get to know the general meaning of a passage to know how the passage is organized, that is, the structure of the text, to get an idea of the intention of the writer.
By skimming, one does not pay attention to individual words, figure,s and phrases, but rather seeks general information or ideas.
Role of the student in Skimming
Activities in a Skimming Lesson
1.Students must locate facts that are expressed in sentences, not single words.
2.Although speed is essential and the teacher often sets a time limit to the activity, skimming should not be done competitively. Students should be encouraged individually to better themselves.
3.To improve skimming, readers should read more and more rapidly to form appropriate questions and predictions, and then read quickly.
Developing Critical and Analytical Reading
Differences Between Reading and Critical Reading
The benefits of critical and analytical reading
What is Analytical Reading?
Critical and Analytical Reading Strategies
During Reading:
After Reading:
Other Reading Strategies
Example of the KWL Method
Other writers indicate the following as some critical reading strategies
Effective Academic reading
Developing Language Skills
ACADEMIC WRITING
THE SUBSEQUENT UNITS WILL SOON BE LOADED...
Please the course outline for Communication Skills is not the correct one because the uploaded one is for Inclusive School Based Inquiry so pls check for us 🙏
ReplyDeleteIt has been fixed. Thanks for the prompt
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